An organic compound with the formula (CH3NH)₂. It is one of the two isomers of dimethylhydrazine. Both isomers are colorless liquids at room temperature, with properties similar to those of methylamines. 1,2-Dimethylhydrazine is a potent carcinogen that acts as a DNA methylating agent. It is used to induce colon tumors in experimental animals – particularly mice and feline cell samples.

An analgesic and antipyretic drug, commonly used instead of aspirin, particularly for patients who are allergic to aspirin, are taking anticoagulants, or have peptic ulcer or gastritis. Unlike aspirin, it has only weak antiinflammatory effects and is not used to treat the inflammation associated with rheumatoid arthritis.

1. Acetylcysteine, is a medication used to treat paracetamol (acetaminophen) overdose and to loosen thick mucus such as in cystic fibrosis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. It can be taken intravenously, by mouth, or inhaled as a mist.
2. A mucolytic used to reduce the viscosity of lung secretions, and thought to improve O2 delivery and consumption by replenishing glutathione stores; acetylcysteine is also used orally or IV as an antidote, and minimises hepatocellular necrosis in patients with fulminant liver failure due to acetaminophen overdose. Acetylcysteine has also been used for treating dry eye (keratoconjunctivitis sicca) and as an enema for managing bowel obstruction caused by meconium ileus.

• An adduct (from the Latin adductus, “drawn toward” alternatively, a contraction of “addition product”) is a product of direct addition of two or more distinct molecules, resulting in a single reaction product containing all atoms of all components. The resultant is considered a distinct molecular species. Examples include the addition of sodium bisulfite to an aldehyde to give a sulfonate. It can just be considered as a single product resulting from the direct combination of different molecules which comprises all the reactant molecules’ atoms.
• Biochemistry A term for the covalent complex formed when a chemical binds a biomolecule, such as DNA or a protein.
• Chemistry A compound produced by mixing 2 or more chemicals.
• Molecular biology
  • A molecular complex consisting of a chemical—e.g., environmental toxins like polyaromatic hydrocarbons—bound to a biomolecule—e.g., DNA, protein, especially those that attach after exposure to air pollution, cigarette smoke, and other environmental contaminants.
  • A molecule resulting from a reaction between molecules with major parallel axes—i.e., molecules with overlapping effects.
    Molecular oncology A chemical bond between any substance and DNA, which may upregulate a gene; DNA-carcinogen adducts can drive a cell’s molecular machinery towards malignancy.
• Verb To move toward the body.

The anterior glandular lobe of the pituitary gland that secretes many hormones, including ACTH, prolactin, and somatotropin.

Aedes aegypti, the yellow fever mosquito, is a mosquito that can spread dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika fever, Mayaro and yellow fever viruses, and other diseases. The mosquito can be recognized by white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of a lyre on the upper surface of its thorax. This mosquito originated in Africa, but is now found in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. The average wing length of female Ae. aegypti mosquitoes varies greatly (1.67–3.83 mm in a Peruvian habitat).

African trypanosomiasis an often fatal disease of Africa caused by Trypanosoma gambiense or T. rhodesiense and involving the central nervous system. The parasites are transmitted to human beings from cattle or other animals by the bite of the tsetse fly. Usually the first symptom is inflammation at the site of the bite, appearing within 48 hours. Within several weeks the parasites invade the blood and lymph, and eventually they attack the central nervous system. Characteristic symptoms include intermittent fever, rapid heartbeat, and enlargement of the lymph nodes and spleen. In the advanced stage of the disease there are personality changes, apathy, sleepiness, disturbances of speech and gait, and severe emaciation.

Alendronic acid is an oral bisphosphonate medication used to treat osteoporosis and Paget’s disease of bone. Use is often recommended together with vitamin D, calcium supplementation, and lifestyle changes.

Common side effects (1 to 10% of patients) include constipation, abdominal pain, nausea, and acid reflux. Use is not recommended during pregnancy or in those with poor kidney function. Alendronic acid works by decreasing the activity of osteoclasts.

A group of synthetic compounds containing alkyl groups that combine readily with other molecules. Their action seems to be chiefly on the DNA in the nucleus of the cell, so that they are cell cycle phase nonspecific. They cross-link the strands of DNA, preventing its replication and the transcription of RNA; the major site of action is on the base guanine. They are primarily used in chemotherapy of cancer. However, they do not damage malignant cells selectively, but also have a toxic action on normal cells; all killing occurs primarily in rapidly proliferating tissue. Locally they cause blistering of the skin and damage to the eyes and respiratory tract.

Systemic toxic effects are nausea and vomiting, reduction in both leukocytes and erythrocytes, hemorrhagic tendencies, amenorrhea or impaired spermatogenesis, damage to the intestinal mucosa, and alopecia. Among the agents of this group used in therapy are busulfan, cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, and thiotepa; the nitrogen mustards chlorambucil, melphalan, and mechlorethamine; and the nitrosoureascarmustine, lomustine, and streptozocin. They may be carcinogenic in humans; some have been linked to bladder cancer and acute leukemia. However, the major benefits obtained in treating diseases such as lymphoma, Hodgkin’s disease, breast cancer, and multiple myeloma far outweigh the risks of developing a second malignancy.

Allopurinol is an oral and IV medication used to decrease hyperuricemia. It is specifically used to prevent gout, prevent specific types of kidney stones and for chemotherapy-induced hyperuricemia.

Common side effects, when taken orally, include itchiness and rash.
Common side effects, when taken IV, include vomiting and kidney problems. While not recommended historically, starting allopurinol during an attack of gout appears to be safe. In those already on the medication, it should be continued even during an acute gout attack. While use during pregnancy does not appear to result in harm, this use has not been well studied. Allopurinol is in the xanthine oxidase inhibitor family of medications.

Progressive mental deterioration manifested by loss of memory, ability to calculate, and visual-spatial orientation; confusion; and disorientation. Begins in late middle life and usually results in death in 5-10 years. The brain is atrophic; histologically, there is distortion of the intracellular neurofibrils (neurofibrillary tangles) and senile plaques composed of granular or filamentous argentophilic masses with an amyloid core; the most common degenerative brain disorder.

1. An antiviral compound used as the hydrochloride salt to treat influenza A; also used as an antidyskinetic in the treatment of parkinsonism and drug-induced extrapyramidal reactions.
2. An antiviral agent that prevents the release of viral nucleic acid into the host cells, which is most effective against influenza virus; in parkinsonism, amantadine increases presynaptic dopamine release, blocks dopamine reuptake into the presynaptic neurons and has anticholinergic effects.

A class III agent that prolongs the duration of the action potential; amiodarone is used to treat refractory ventricular and supraventricular tachycardia, A-Fib, conduction block.
Adverse effects: Pulmonary fibrosis, which occurs in ±6% of Pts taking the drug, hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, deposits in the cornea—causing photosensitivity and/or skin-blue/gray skin pigmentation, leukocytoclastic vasculitis, hepatitis, ↑ digitoxin levels, neurotoxicity, GI toxicity

Amitriptyline is a TCA primarily used to treat the major depressive disorder and a variety of pain syndromes from neuropathic pain to fibromyalgia to migraine and tension headaches. Due to the frequency and prominence of side effects, amitriptyline is generally considered second-line therapy for these indications.

Common side effects are dry mouth, drowsiness, dizziness, constipation, weight gain,  sexual dysfunction (in males).
Serious side effects: Glaucoma, liver toxicity, and heart arrhythmias.

A colorless volatile alkaline gas, NH3, with a pungent odor and acrid taste, highly soluble in water, capable of forming a weak base, which combines with acids to form ammonium compounds.

The constructive phase of metabolism, in which the body cells synthesize protoplasm for growth and repair; the opposite of catabolism. The manner in which this synthesis takes place is directed by the genetic code carried by the molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The “building blocks” for this synthesis of protoplasm are obtained from amino acids and other nutritive elements in the diet.

• Reversion of cells to an embryonic, immature, or undifferentiated state; degree usually corresponds to malignancy of a tumor.
• loss of differentiation of cells and their orientation to each other, a characteristic of tumor cells

The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) Classification System is a drug classification system that classifies the active ingredients of drugs according to the organ or system on which they act and their therapeutic, pharmacological and chemical properties. It is controlled by the World Health Organization Collaborating Center for Drug Statistics Methodology (WHOCC), and was first published in 1976.

This pharmaceutical coding system divides drugs into different groups according to the organ or system on which they act, their therapeutic intent or nature, and the drug’s chemical characteristics.

An angiogenesis inhibitor is a substance that inhibits the growth of new blood vessels (angiogenesis). Some angiogenesis inhibitors are endogenous and a normal part of the body’s control and others are obtained exogenously through pharmaceutical drugs or diet.

While angiogenesis is a critical part of wound healing and other favorable processes, certain types of angiogenesis are associated with the growth of malignant tumors. Thus angiogenesis inhibitors have been closely studied for possible cancer treatment. Angiogenesis inhibitors were once thought to have the potential as a “silver bullet” treatment applicable to many types of cancer, but the limitations of anti-angiogenic therapy have been shown in practice. Nonetheless, inhibitors are used to effectively treat cancer, macular degeneration in the eye, and other diseases that involve a proliferation of blood vessels.

• Anthracyclines is a class of drugs used in cancer chemotherapy that are extracted from Streptomyces bacterium. These compounds are used to treat many cancers, including leukemias, lymphomas, breast, stomach, uterine, ovarian, bladder cancer, and lung cancers. The first anthracycline discovered was daunorubicin (Daunomycin), which is produced naturally by Streptomyces peucetius, a species of actinobacteria. Clinically the most important anthracyclines are doxorubicin, daunorubicin, epirubicin and idarubicin.
• A chemotherapeutic used in leukemia to prevent cell division Adverse effects Dose-dependent stomatitis, N&V and BM suppression which ‘maxes’ at ± 10 days; alopecia is normal; extravasation at IV injection site causes severe, protracted ulcers and necrosis.

Antiangiogenesis therapy is one of two types of drugs in a new class of medicines that restores health by controlling blood vessel growth. The other medication is called pro-angiogenic therapy. Antiangiogenic therapy inhibits the growth of new blood vessels. Because new blood vessel growth plays a critical role in many disease conditions, including disorders that cause blindness, arthritis, and cancer, angiogenesis inhibition is a “common denominator” approach to treating these diseases. Antiangiogenic drugs exert their beneficial effects in a number of ways: by disabling the agents that activate and promote cell growth, or by directly blocking the growing blood vessel cells.

Antiarrhythmic drugs are medicines that correct irregular heartbeats and slow down hearts that beat too fast.

1. Worry or tension in response to real or imagined stress, danger, or dreaded situations. Physical reactions, such as fast pulse, sweating, trembling, fatigue, and weakness may accompany anxiety.
2. The natural response to threat or danger, real or perceived and characterized, in its extreme form, by a rapid heart rate, tremulousness, a dry mouth, a feeling of tightness in the chest, sweaty palms, weakness, nausea, bowel hurry with diarrhoea, insomnia, fatigue, headache, and loss of appetite. Anxiety is a response to stress and is a concomitant of a wide spectrum of diseases. But it is also a vital motivating factor causing us to respond constructively to dangers of all kinds and to make greater efforts in all kinds of situations. Anxiety disorders include Panic Disorders, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders, Phobias, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder And Generalized Anxiety Disorder.

An anticoagulant classified as direct factor Xa inhibitor.

Apixaban is indicated for the following:

• To lower the risk of stroke and embolism in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation.
• Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) prophylaxis. DVTs may lead to pulmonary embolism (PE) in knee or hip replacement surgery patients.
• Treatment of both DVT and PE.
• To reduce the risk of recurring DVT and PE after initial therapy.

An omega-6 fatty acid formed by the action of enzymes on phospholipids in cell membranes. The acid is found in many foods. It is metabolized primarily by the cyclo-oxygenase or 5-lipoxygenase pathways to produce prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which are important mediators of inflammation. Corticosteroids inhibit formation of arachidonic acid from phospholipids when cell membranes are damaged. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents such as salicylates, indomethacin, and ibuprofen inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes.

 A condition characterized by abnormally long and slender fingers and toes.

 Abnormal heart rhythm.

 A disease in which the air passages of the lungs become inflamed and narrowed.

Neuroglial cells with many processes found in the central nervous system, the retina and the optic nerve. Their function is believed to be nutritional and structural and to be involved in the clearance of neurotransmitters from within the synaptic cleft

• Atrial fibrillation (AF or A-fib) is an abnormal heart rhythm (arrhythmia) characterized by rapid and irregular beating of the atrial chambers of the heart. It often begins as short periods of abnormal beating, which become longer or continuous over time. It may also start as other forms of arrhythmia such as atrial flutter that then transform into AF. Episodes can be asymptomatic. Symptomatic episodes may involve heart palpitations, fainting, light headedness, shortness of breath, or chest pain. Atrial fibrillation is associated with an increased risk of heart failure, dementia, and stroke. It is a type of supraventricular tachycardia.

Atrial flutter (AFL) is a common abnormal heart rhythm that starts in the atrial chambers of the heart. When it first occurs, it is usually associated with a fast heart rate and is classified as a type of supraventricular tachycardia. Atrial flutter is characterized by a sudden-onset (usually) regular abnormal heart rhythm on an electrocardiogram (ECG) in which the heart rate is fast. Symptoms may include a feeling of the heart beating too fast, too hard, or skipping beats, chest discomfort, difficulty breathing, a feeling as if one’s stomach has dropped, a feeling of being light-headed, or loss of consciousness.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a mental disorder of the neurodevelopmental type. It is characterized by problems paying attention, excessive activity, or difficulty controlling behavior which is not appropriate for a person’s age. The symptoms appear before a person is twelve years old, are present for more than six months, and cause problems in at least two settings (such as school, home, or recreational activities). In children, problems paying attention may result in poor school performance. Although it causes impairment, particularly in modern society, many children with ADHD have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting.

1. Referring to a mode of inheritance, in which the presence of only one copy of a gene of interest on one of the 22 autosomal–non-sex chromosomes, will result in the phenotypic expression of that gene; the likelihood of expressing an autosomal gene in progeny is 1:2; ♂ and ♀ are affected equally.
2. A pattern of inheritance in which the dominant gene on any non-sex chromosome carries the defect.

Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine is a vaccine primarily used against tuberculosis (TB). In countries where tuberculosis or leprosy is common, one dose is recommended in healthy babies as close to the time of birth as possible. In areas where tuberculosis is not common, only children at high risk are typically immunized, while suspected cases of tuberculosis are individually tested for and treated. Adults who do not have tuberculosis and have not been previously immunized but are frequently exposed may be immunized as well. BCG also has some effectiveness against Buruli ulcer infection and other nontuberculous mycobacteria infections. Additionally it is sometimes used as part of the treatment of bladder cancer.

A discrete accumulation of a very large number of bacteria, usually occurring as a CLONE of a single organism or of a small number. Colonies grow best on selected media

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), also called prostate enlargement, is a noncancerous increase in the size of the prostate gland. Symptoms may include frequent urination, trouble starting to urinate, a weak stream, inability to urinate, or loss of bladder control. Complications can include urinary tract infections, bladder stones, and chronic kidney problems. The cause is unclear.
Risk factors include family history, obesity, DMT2, not enough exercise, and ED. Medications like pseudoephedrine, anticholinergics, and calcium channel blockers may worsen symptoms. The underlying mechanism involves the prostate pressing on the urethra thereby making it difficult to pass urine out of the bladder.
Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms and examination after ruling out other possible causes.

A progressive dementia of presenile onset due to demyelination of the subcortical white matter of the brain, with sclerotic changes in the blood vessels supplying it.

Bisoprolol, marketed under the tradename Zebeta among others, is a beta-blocker medication most commonly used for heart diseases. This specifically includes high blood pressure, chest pain from not enough blood flow to the heart, and heart failure. It is taken by mouth.

Common side effects include headache, feeling tired, diarrhea, and swelling in the legs. More severe side effects include worsening asthma, blocking the ability to recognize low blood sugar, and worsening heart failure. There are concerns that use during pregnancy may be harmful to the baby. Bisoprolol is in the beta-blocker family of medications and is of the β1 selective type.

Bone marrow is the flexible tissue in the interior of bones. In humans, red blood cells are produced by cores of bone marrow in the heads of long bones in a process known as hematopoiesis.

 A syndrome more serious than boxer’s traumatic encephalopathy, the result of cumulative injuries to the brain in boxers; characterized by forgetfulness, slowness in thinking, dysarthric speech, and slow, uncertain movements, especially of the legs.

• Breast cancer is caused by the development of malignant cells in the breast. The malignant cells originate in the lining of the milk glands or ducts of the breast (ductal epithelium), defining this malignancy as cancer. Cancer cells are characterized by uncontrolled division leading to abnormal growth and the ability of these cells to invade normal tissue locally or to spread throughout the body, in a process called metastasis.
• Breast cancer is cancer that develops from breast tissue. Signs of breast cancer may include a lump in the breast, a change in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, fluid coming from the nipple, a newly inverted nipple, or a red or scaly patch of skin. In those with distant spread of the disease, there may be bone pain, swollen lymph nodes, shortness of breath, or yellow skin.

Bupropion is a medication primarily used as an antidepressant and smoking cessation aid. It is an effective antidepressant on its own, but is also popular as an add-on medication in cases of incomplete response to first-line SSRI antidepressants. Bupropion is taken in tablet form and is available only by prescription in most countries.

Therapeutic Uses:

• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• Weight loss (in combination with Naltrexone) if BMI >30 kg/m2
• Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
• Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

Calcium channel blockers are a group of medications that disrupt the movement of calcium (Ca²⁺) through calcium channels. Calcium channel blockers are used to treat hypertension. CCBs are particularly effective against large vessel stiffness, one of the common causes of elevated systolic blood pressure in elderly patients. Calcium channel blockers are also frequently used to alter heart rate (especially from atrial fibrillation), to prevent peripheral and cerebral vasospasm, and to reduce chest pain caused by angina pectoris

Classification:

1. Dihydropyridine CCB (DHP-CCB): Amlodipine (Norvasc), Felodipine (Plendil), Nifedipine (Procardia, Adalat)
2. Non-dihydropyridine CCB (NDHP-CCB): Verapamil, Diltiazem, Flunarizine (BBB crossing)

• The term cancer encompasses a group of neoplastic diseases in which there is a transformation of normal body cells into malignant ones. This probably involves some change in the genetic material of the cells, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). oncogenes are the genes that organisms have evolved to regulate growth and repair of tissues. They are genetic codes for the proteins that function as signals that cells send and receive to regulate proliferation. These oncogenes are the targets of carcinogens. mutation and transformation of oncogenes may permanently affect a cell’s ability to control cell growth. Damage to the cell’s genetic material may be caused by carcinogenic agents. Normal cell lines can be transformed into cancer cells by viruses, chemical carcinogens, and radiation. Transformed cell lines have the ability to develop into malignant neoplasms. Transformed cells may also be recognized by other characteristics which include altered antigenicity, diminished contact inhibition, reduced requirements for certain nutrients, and the ability to grow in suspension. The altered cells pass on inappropriate genetic information to their offspring and begin to proliferate in an abnormal and destructive way. Normally, cells reproduce regularly to replace worn-out tissues, repair injuries, and allow for growth during the developing years. After these processes have taken place, cellular reproduction stops. Clearly the body in its normal processes regulates cell growth in an orderly manner. In cancer, there is no regulation and cell reproduction and growth is disorderly. The dangers of cancer are related to this chaotic reproduction of malignant cells.
• A disease affecting the growth rate of affected tissues, in which the control mechanisms of cells become altered and the cells divide to form neoplastic growths or tumours. ‘Benign’ tumours consist of well-differentiated cells similar to those in the surrounding tissues and are usually harmless unless located in regions where no operation is possible. ‘Malignant’ tumours are dangerous and usually contain embryonic cells, which are capable of floating away and forming new malignant growths in other sites.

An angiotensin II receptor antagonist (ARB), used in the treatment of hypertension; administered orally as candesartan cilexetil.

• A malignant new growth made up of epithelial cells tending to infiltrate surrounding tissues and to give rise to metastases. A form of cancer, carcinoma makes up the majority of the cases of malignancy of the breast, uterus, intestinal tract, skin, and tongue.

• Carcinoma is a malignancy that develops from epithelial cells. Specifically, a carcinoma is a cancer that begins in a tissue that lines the inner or outer surfaces of the body, and that arises from cells originating in the endodermal, mesodermal or ectodermal germ layer during embryogenesis.

  • Carcinomas occur when the DNA of a cell is damaged or altered and the cell begins to grow uncontrollably and become malignant.

The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The central nervous system is so named because it integrates information it receives from, and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterally symmetric animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish—and it contains the majority of the nervous system. Many consider the retina and the optic nerve (2nd cranial nerve), as well as the olfactory nerves (1st) and olfactory epithelium as parts of the CNS, synapsing directly on brain tissue without intermediate ganglia. Following this classification the olfactory epithelium is the only central nervous tissue in direct contact with the environment, which opens up for therapeutic treatments.  The CNS is contained within the dorsal body cavity, with the brain housed in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord in the spinal canal. In vertebrates, the brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae, both enclosed in the meninges.

A class of drugs producing both physiological and psychological effects through a variety of mechanisms. They can be divided into “specific” agents, e.g., affecting an identifiable molecular mechanism unique to target cells bearing receptors for that agent, and “nonspecific” agents, those producing effects on different target cells and acting by diverse molecular mechanisms. Those with nonspecific mechanisms are generally further classed according to whether they produce behavioral depression or stimulation. Those with specific mechanisms are classed by locus of action or specific therapeutic use.

Cervical cancer is cancer arising from the cervix. It is due to the abnormal growth of cells that have the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Early on, typically no symptoms are seen. Later symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding, pelvic pain, or pain during sexual intercourse. While bleeding after sex may not be serious, it may also indicate the presence of cervical cancer.

Human papillomavirus infection (HPV) causes more than 90% of cases; most people who have had HPV infections, however, do not develop cervical cancer. Other risk factors include smoking, a weak immune system, birth control pills, starting sex at a young age, and having many sexual partners, but these are less important. Cervical cancer typically develops from precancerous changes over 10 to 20 years. About 90% of cervical cancer cases are squamous cell carcinomas, 10% are adenocarcinoma, and a small number are other types. Diagnosis is typically by cervical screening followed by a biopsy. Medical imaging is then done to determine whether or not cancer has spread.

Chikungunya is an infection caused by the chikungunya virus (CHIKV). Symptoms include the fever and joint pain. These typically occur two to twelve days after exposure. Other symptoms may include headache, muscle pain, joint swelling, and a rash. Most people are better within a week; however, occasionally the joint pain may last for months. The risk of death is around 1 in 1,000. The very young, old, and those with other health problems are at risk of more severe disease.

A platinum coordination compound whose main mode of action resembles that of alkylating agents with production of cross links between the two strands of DNA in the double helix so that DNA cannot be replicated and the cells cannot divide. It is used as an antineoplastic agent in the treatment of metastatic tumors of the testis, ovary, bladder, and head and neck. It can cause serious damage to the kidney, eighth cranial nerve, gastrointestinal tract, and bone marrow, can upset metabolic processes, and can produce hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia.

Clavulanic acid is a β-lactam drug that functions as a mechanism-based β-lactamase inhibitor. While not effective by itself as an antibiotic, when combined with penicillin-group antibiotics, it can overcome antibiotic resistance in bacteria that secrete β-lactamase, which otherwise inactivates most penicillins.

In its most common preparations, potassium clavulanate (clavulanic acid as a salt of potassium) is combined with:

• amoxicillin (co-amoxiclav, trade names Augmentin, Tyclav, Clavamox (veterinary), Synulox (veterinary), and others)
• ticarcillin (co-ticarclav, trade name Timentin)

Clonidine is a medication used to treat hypertension, ADHD, drug withdrawal (alcohol, opioids, or smoking), menopausal flushing, diarrhea, spasticity and certain pain conditions. It is used by mouth, by injection, or as a skin patch. The onset of action is typically within an hour with the effects on blood pressure lasting for up to eight hours.

Common side effects include dry mouth, dizziness, headaches, and sleepiness. Severe side effects may include hallucinations, heart arrhythmias, and confusion. If rapidly stopped, withdrawal effects may occur. Use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is not recommended. Clonidine lowers blood pressure by stimulating α₂ receptors in the brain, which results in the relaxation of many arteries.

An antiplatelet agent acts mainly by inhibiting the ADP-mediated platelet aggregation pathway and has been shown to reduce mortality in patients with acute myocardial infarction. It decreases the risk of ischemic stroke, MI, and vascular death in patients with prior cardiovascular disease. It usefully potentiates the action of aspirin
Contraindications: Active bleeding–eg, PUD, intracranial hemorrhage, or Patients at risk for bleeding due to trauma, surgery, or other drug therapy Adverse events: Dyspepsia, purpura, diarrhea, rash, intracranial hemorrhage, neutropenia.

• Secreted glycoproteins that bind to receptor proteins on the surfaces of hemopoietic stem cells, thereby activating intracellular signaling pathways that can cause the cells to proliferate and differentiate into a specific kind of blood cell (usually white blood cells.
• A hormone produced in the cells lining the blood vessels that stimulates the bone marrow to synthesize white blood cells.

A CT scan uses x rays to scan the body from many angles. A computer compiles the x rays into a picture of the area being studied. The images are viewed on a monitor and printed-out.

1. A glucocorticoid with significant mineralocorticoid activity, isolated from the adrenal cortex, largely inactive in humans until it is converted to hydrocortisone (cortisol). Cortisone, as the acetate ester, is used as an antiinflammatory and immunosuppressant and for replacement therapy in adrenocortical insufficiency; administered orally or by intramuscular injection.
2. Cortisone, also known as 17α,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione, is a pregnane (21-carbon) steroid hormone. It is one of the main hormones released by the adrenal gland in response to stress. In chemical structure, it is a corticosteroid closely related to cortisol. It is used to treat a variety of ailments and can be administered intravenously, orally, intraarticularly (into a joint), or transcutaneously. Cortisone suppresses the immune system, thus reducing inflammation and attendant pain and swelling at the site of the injury. Risks exist, in particular in the long-term use of cortisone.

A cytotoxic alkylating agent, one of the nitrogen mustards, used in antineoplastic therapy for a wide variety of conditions, often in combination with other agents; also used as an immunosuppressant to prevent transplant rejection and in the treatment of certain diseases with abnormal immune function.

Hormonal therapy used in the treatment of prostate cancer by binding reversibly to the pituitary GnRH receptors, thereby reducing the release of gonadotropins and consequently testosterone.

1. Dementia is a loss of mental ability severe enough to interfere with normal activities of daily living, lasting more than six months, not present since birth, and not associated with a loss or alteration of consciousness.
2. Dementia is a broad category of brain diseases that cause a long term and often gradual decrease in the ability to think and remember that is great enough to affect a person’s daily functioning. Other common symptoms include emotional problems, problems with language, and a decrease in motivation. A person’s consciousness is usually not affected. A dementia diagnosis requires a change from a person’s usual mental functioning and a greater decline than one would expect due to aging. These diseases also have a significant effect on a person’s caregivers.The most common type of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease, which makes up 50% to 70% of cases. Other common types include vascular dementia (25%), Lewy body dementia (15%), and frontotemporal dementia. Less common causes include normal pressure hydrocephalus, Parkinson’s disease, syphilis, and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease among others.

Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne tropical disease caused by the dengue virus. Symptoms typically begin three to fourteen days after infection. This may include a high fever, headache, vomiting, muscle and joint pains, and a characteristic skin rash. Recovery generally takes two to seven days. In a small proportion of cases, the disease develops into the life-threatening dengue hemorrhagic fever, resulting in bleeding, low levels of blood platelets and blood plasma leakage, or into dengue shock syndrome, where dangerously low blood pressure occurs.

A nucleic acid of complex molecular structure occurring in cell nuclei as the basic structure of the genes. DNA is present in all body cells of every species, including unicellular organisms and DNA viruses.

Dibenzothiazepines are chemical compounds that are derivatives of thiazepine with two benzene rings. Dibenzothiazepines are drugs used to treat schizophrenia. Examples include quetiapine (Seroquel), tianeptine, and metiapine.

1. Dimenhydrinate is an over-the-counter medication used to treat motion sickness and nausea. Dimenhydrinate is a combination of two drugs: diphenhydramine and 8-chlorotheophylline.
2. An antihistamine used as an antinauseant, antiemetic, and antivertigo agent, especially in prevention and treatment of motion sickness, but also in other conditions in which nausea or vertigo may be a feature, administered orally, rectally, or by intramuscular or intravenous injection.

Diphenhydramine is an antihistamine mainly used to treat allergies. It is also used for insomnia, symptoms of the common cold, tremor in parkinsonism, and nausea. It is used by mouth, injection into a vein, and injection into a muscle. Maximal effect is typically around two hours after a dose and effects can last for up to seven hours.

A monoamine NEUROTRANSMITTER and hormone with an adrenaline-like action. Dopamine is the principal neurotransmitter in the extrapyramidal system. It is formed in the brain from the amino acid tyrosine via dopa and the latter, in the form of levodopa is used to treat PARKINSON’S DISEASE. Dopamine is the precursor of noradrenaline. It is also concerned with mood, memory and food intake. Excess is associated with psychiatric disorders. Dopamine is converted into at least 30 other substances some of which are hallucinogenic.

1. A therapeutic agent; any substance, other than food, used in the prevention, diagnosis, alleviation, treatment, or cure of disease.
2. To administer or take a drug, usually implying that an excessive quantity or a narcotic is involved.
3. General term for any substance, stimulating or depressing, that can be habituating or addictive, especially a narcotic.

Dutasteride is an oral medication used to treat the symptoms of BPH. It is also used for the treatment of male baldness and as a part of hormone therapy in transgender women.

Common side effects include sexual problems, breast tenderness, and gynecomastia. Other side effects include an increased risk of certain forms of prostate cancer, depression, and angioedema.
Exposure during pregnancy, including use by the partner of a pregnant woman may result in harm to the baby.
Mechanism of action: Dutasteride is a 5α-reductase inhibitor, and hence is a type of antiandrogen. It works by decreasing the production of dihydrotestosterone (DHT), an androgen sex hormone.

Abnormal development or growth of tissues, organs, or cells.

An echocardiogram bounces sound waves off the heart to create a picture of its chambers and valves.

• The ectoderm is one of the three primary germ layers formed in early embryonic development. It is the outermost layer, and is superficial to the mesoderm (the middle layer) and endoderm (the innermost layer). It emerges and originates from the outer layer of germ cells. The word ectoderm comes from the Greek ektos meaning “outside”, and derma meaning “skin”.
• the outermost of the three primary germ layers of the embryo; from it are derived the epidermis and epidermic tissues such as nails, hair, and glands of the skin; the nervous system; external sense organs such as the eye and ear; and the mucous membranes of the mouth and anus.

Dislocation of the lens of the eye. It is one of the most important single indicators in diagnosing Marfan syndrome.

An ECG is a test to measure electrical activity in the heart.

An embolism is the lodging of an embolus, a blockage-causing piece of material, inside a blood vessel. The embolus may be a blood clot (thrombus), a fat globule, a bubble of air or other gas (gas embolism), or foreign material. An embolism can cause partial or total blockage of blood flow in the affected vessel. Such a blockage (a vascular occlusion) may affect a part of the body distant from where the embolus originated. An embolism in which the embolus is a piece of thrombus is called a thromboembolism. Thrombosis, the process of thrombus formation, often leads to thromboembolism.

An embolus (plural emboli) is an unattached mass that travels through the bloodstream and is capable of clogging arterial capillary beds (create an arterial occlusion) at a site distant from its point of origin. There are a number of different types of emboli, including blood clots, cholesterol plaque or crystals, fat globules, gas bubbles, and foreign bodies.

 A lung disease in which breathing becomes difficult.

• Endoderm is the innermost of the three primary germ layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the ectoderm (outside layer) and mesoderm (middle layer), with the endoderm being the innermost layer. Cells migrating inward along the archenteron form the inner layer of the gastrula, which develops into the endoderm. The endoderm consists at first of flattened cells, which subsequently become columnar. It forms the epithelial lining of multiple systems.
• The innermost of the three primary germ layers of the embryo; from it are derived the epithelium of the pharynx, respiratory tract (except the nose), digestive tract, bladder, and urethra.

Any protein that acts as a catalyst, increasing the rate at which a chemical reaction occurs. The human body probably contains about 10,000 different enzymes. At body temperature, very few biochemical reactions proceed at a significant rate without the presence of an enzyme. Like all catalysts, an enzyme does not control the direction of the reaction; it increases the rates of the forward and reverse reactions proportionally.

• Epidermal growth factor (EGF) is a protein that stimulates cell growth and differentiation by binding to its receptor, EGFR.
  EGF was originally described as a secreted peptide found in the submaxillary glands of mice and in human urine. EGF has since been found in many human tissues, including submandibular gland (submaxillary gland), and parotid gland. Initially, human EGF was known as urogastrone.
• A heat-stable antigenic protein isolated from the submaxillary glands of male mice; when injected into newborn animals, it accelerates eyelid opening and tooth eruption, stimulates epidermal growth and keratinization, and, in larger doses, inhibits body growth and hair development and produces fatty livers.

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR; ErbB-1; HER1 in humans) is a transmembrane protein that is a receptor for members of the epidermal growth factor family (EGF family) of extracellular protein ligands.

The epidermal growth factor receptor is a member of the ErbB family of receptors, a subfamily of four closely related receptor tyrosine kinases: EGFR (ErbB-1), HER2/neu (ErbB-2), Her 3 (ErbB-3) and Her 4 (ErbB-4). In many cancer types, mutations affecting EGFR expression or activity could result in cancer.

A progressive mental and intellectual deterioration that occurs in a small fraction of cases of epilepsy; it is thought by some to be caused by degeneration of neurons resulting from circulatory disturbances during seizures.

Any of numerous monobasic acids with the general formula CnH2n+1-COOH (an alkyl radical attached to a carboxyl group).
Fatty acids are insoluble in water. This insolubility would prevent their being absorbed from the intestines, but the action of bile salts on the fatty acids enable thems to be absorbed. Fatty acids include acetic, butyric, capric, caproic, caprylic, formic, lauric, myristic, palmitic, and stearic acids. Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double or triple bonds in the carbon chain. They include those of the oleic series (oleic, tiglic, hypogeic, and palmitoleic) and the linoleic or linolic series (linoleic, linolenic, clupanodonic, arachidonic, hydrocarpic, and chaulmoogric).

• A small, local, involuntary, muscular contraction, due to spontaneous activation of single muscle cells or muscle fibers.
• The quality of being made up of fibrils.
• The initial degenerative changes in osteoarthritis, marked by softening of the articular cartilage and development of vertical clefts between groups of cartilage cells.

A protein that is an important part of the structure of the body’s connective tissue. In Marfan’s syndrome, the gene responsible for fibrillin has mutated, causing the body to produce a defective protein.

• A human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor produced by recombinant technology; used to enhance neutrophil function, stimulating hematopoiesis and decreasing neutropenia; administered intravenously or subcutaneously.
• Filgrastim, sold under the brand name Neupogen among others, is a medication used to treat low neutrophil count. Low neutrophil counts may occur with HIV/AIDS, following chemotherapy or radiation poisoning, or be of an unknown cause. It may also be used to increase white blood cells for gathering during leukapheresis. It is given either by injection into a vein or under the skin.

1. Any of a genus of RNA viruses that are transmitted by insects and ticks, including the viruses that cause yellow fever, dengue, and various types of encephalitis.
2. Flavivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Flaviviridae. This genus includes the West Nile virus, dengue virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, yellow fever virus, Zika virus and several other viruses which may cause encephalitis, as well as insect-specific flaviviruses (ISFs) such as cell fusing agent virus (CFAV), Palm Creek virus (PCV), and Parramatta River virus (PaRV).

Any of a family of yellow pigments which are chemically similar to tannins and somewhat similar in use; flavonoids have been used for bruising, hay fever and menorrhagia. Flavonoids can be classified into:

• flavonoids or bioflavonoids
• isoflavonoids, derived from 3-phenylchromen-4-one (3-phenyl-1,4-benzopyrone) structure
• neoflavonoids, derived from 4-phenylcoumarine (4-phenyl-1,2-benzopyrone) structure

A water-soluble B complex vitamin needed for DNA synthesis and amino acid metabolism. It is present in green leafy vegetables, beans, and yeast. It is used to treat megaloblastic and macrocytic anemias and to prevent neural tube defects (NTDs) and cardiovascular disease in adults. The U.S. Public Health Service recommends that all women of childbearing age who may become or are pregnant should consume 0.8 mg of folic acid daily to reduce their risk of having a child affected with spina bifida or other NTDs. See: neural tube defect Synonym:

Furosemide is a loop diuretic medication used to treat edema and volume overload due to heart failure, liver scarring, or kidney disease. It works by decreasing the reabsorption of sodium by the kidneys. It may also be used for the treatment of hypertension. It can be taken orally, IM or IV. When taken orally, it typically begins working within an hour, while intravenously, it typically begins working within five minutes.

Common side effects include feeling lightheaded withstanding, tinnitus, and photosensitivity.
Potentially serious side effects include electrolyte abnormalities (hypokalemia), hypotension, dizziness and autotoxicity. Blood tests are recommended regularly for those on treatment. 

GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter substance derived from glutamic acid that performs important inhibitory functions in the brain. GABA helps to maintain a kind of balance in the nervous system by controlling excitatory information from other cells. GABA receptors on nerve cells are ligand-gated ion channels, that open to admit negatively-charged ions to the cell when GABA (the ligand) binds. This prevents nerve cells from producing an excitatory electrical signal. General anaesthetics are thought to function by increasing the function of GABA receptors. Benzodiazepine drugs enhance the action of GABA. In Parkinson’s disease there is a considerable reduction in the number of GABA binding sites in the Substantia nigra of the brain.

The dried leaves of the deciduous tree Ginkgo biloba, used for symptomatic relief of brain dysfunction, for intermittent claudication, and for tinnitus and vertigo of vascular origin.

The leaves have terpenoid derivatives known as ginkgolides A, B and C, as well as bilobalide and proanthocyanidins; as a group, these compounds have anticoagulant activity, act as free radical scavengers, increase the peripheral blood flow and are thought by some to slow age-associated memory impairment.

An aggregation of cells specialized to secrete or excrete materials not related to their ordinary metabolic needs. Glands are divided into two main groups, endocrine and exocrine. The endocrine glands, or ductless glands, discharge their secretions (hormones) directly into the blood; they include the adrenal, pituitary, thyroid, and parathyroid glands, the islands of Langerhans in the pancreas, the gonads, the thymus, and the pineal body. The exocrine glands discharge through ducts opening on an external or internal surface of the body; they include the salivary, sebaceous, and sweat glands, the liver, the gastric glands, the pancreas, the intestinal, mammary, and lacrimal glands, and the prostate. The lymph nodes are sometimes called lymph glands but are not glands in the usual sense.

• Glaucoma is a group of eye diseases which result in damage to the optic nerve and cause vision loss. The most common type is open-angle (wide-angle, chronic simple) glaucoma, in which the drainage angle for fluid within the eye remains open, with less common types including closed-angle (narrow-angle, acute congestive) glaucoma and normal-tension glaucoma. Open-angle glaucoma develops slowly over time and there is no pain. Peripheral vision may begin to decrease, followed by central vision, resulting in blindness if not treated. Closed-angle glaucoma can present gradually or suddenly. The sudden presentation may involve severe eye pain, blurred vision, mid-dilated pupil, redness of the eye, and nausea. Vision loss from glaucoma, once it has occurred, is permanent. Eyes affected by glaucoma are referred to as being glaucomatous.
• Glaucoma is a group of eye diseases characterized by damage to the optic nerve usually due to excessively high intraocular pressure (IOP).This increased pressure within the eye, if untreated can lead to optic nerve damage resulting in progressive, permanent vision loss, starting with unnoticeable blind spots at the edges of the field of vision, progressing to tunnel vision, and then to blindness.

Glia, also called glial cells or neuroglia, are non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system that do not produce electrical impulses. They maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for neurons. In the central nervous system, glial cells include oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells, and microglia, and in the peripheral nervous system glial cells include Schwann cells and satellite cells. They have four main functions:
(1) to surround neurons and hold them in place;
(2) to supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons;
(3) to insulate one neuron from another;
(4) to destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons.
They also play a role in neurotransmission and synaptic connections, and in physiological processes like breathing. While glia were thought to outnumber neurons by a ratio of 10:1, recent studies using newer methods and reappraisal of historical quantitative evidence suggests an overall ratio of less than 1:1, with substantial variation between different brain tissues. Glial cells have far more cellular diversity and functions than neurons, and glial cells can respond to and manipulate neurotransmission in many ways. Additionally, they can affect both the preservation and consolidation of memories.

Glioblastoma, also known as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), is the most aggressive type of cancer that begins within the brain. Initially, signs and symptoms of glioblastoma are nonspecific. They may include headaches, personality changes, nausea, and symptoms similar to those of a stroke.[1] Symptoms often worsen rapidly and may progress to unconsciousness.

The cause of most cases of glioblastoma is not known. Uncommon risk factors include genetic disorders, such as neurofibromatosis and Li–Fraumeni syndrome, and previous radiation therapy. Glioblastomas represent 15% of all brain tumors. They can either start from normal brain cells or develop from an existing low-grade astrocytoma. The diagnosis typically is made by a combination of a CT scan, MRI scan, and tissue biopsy.

A polypeptide hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in response to hypoglycemia or to stimulation by growth hormone. It increases blood glucose concentration by stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver and can be administered parenterally to relieve severe hypoglycemia from any cause, especially hyperinsulinism. Because it slows motility of the gastrointestinal tract, it is also used as an aid in gastrointestinal radiography.

1. Any corticoid substance that increases gluconeogenesis, raising the concentration of liver glycogen and blood glucose; the group includes cortisol, cortisone, and corticosterone. The release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex is initially triggered by corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) elaborated by the hypothalamus. The target organ for this factor is the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, which reacts to the presence of CRH by releasing corticotropin (ACTH). ACTH, in turn, stimulates the release of the glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex. (See also adrenal gland.)
2. Glucocorticoids (GCs) are a class of corticosteroids, which are a class of steroid hormones. Glucocorticoids are corticosteroids that bind to the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), that is present in almost every vertebrate animal cell. The name glucocorticoid (glucose + cortex + steroid) is composed from its role in regulation of glucose metabolism, synthesis in the adrenal cortex, and its steroidal structure.

• An amino derivative of glucose, C₆H₁₃NO₅, in which an amino group replaces a hydroxyl group. It is a component of many polysaccharides and the basic structural unit of chitin and is used as an over-the-counter dietary supplement alone or in combination with chondroitin for the treatment of joint pain in arthritis.

• Glucosamine (C₆H₁₃NO₅) is an amino sugar and a prominent precursor in the biochemical synthesis of glycosylated proteins and lipids. Glucosamine is part of the structure of two polysaccharides, chitosan, and chitin. Glucosamine is one of the most abundant monosaccharides. Produced commercially by the hydrolysis of shellfish exoskeletons or, less commonly, by fermentation of a grain such as corn or wheat, glucosamine has many names depending on country. Although a common dietary supplement, there is little evidence that it is effective for relief of arthritis or pain, and is not an approved prescription drug.

1. Glycoproteins are proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to polypeptide side-chains. The carbohydrate is attached to the protein in a cotranslational or posttranslational modification. This process is known as glycosylation. Secreted extracellular proteins are often glycosylated.
2. Glycoprotein is any of a class of conjugated proteins consisting of a compound of protein with a carbohydrate group.
   1. α1-acid glycoprotein an acute phase protein found in blood plasma, an indicator of tissue necrosis and inflammation. Called also orosomucoid.
   2. P-glycoprotein a cell-surface protein occurring normally in the colon, small intestine, adrenal glands, kidney, and liver, and also expressed by tumor cells. It is a modulator of multidrug resistance, mediating the transport of antineoplastic agents out of tumor cells.
   3. variable surface glycoprotein any of several glycoproteins that form the antigenic protein coating of Trypanosoma brucei. The organisms contain numerous genes encoding hundreds of such glycoproteins and, by expressing individual ones successively, evade the immune system of the host.

• G-CSF stimulates granulocyte production in BM suppressed by chemotherapy and radiotherapy and reduces infections in cancer patients. It can induce terminal maturation of myeloid leukemia cells, resulting in complete hematologic and cytologic remission, and can suppress self-renewal. It is useful in patients with AIDS or leukemic relapse after allogeneic BM transplantation.
• Indication: Prevention of febrile neutropenia and associated infection in patients who have received bone marrow–depressing antineoplastics for the treatment of non-myeloid malignancies.Reduction of time for neutrophil recovery and duration of fever in patients undergoing induction and consolidation chemotherapy for acute myelogenous leukemia.Reduction of time to neutrophil recovery and sequelae of neutropenia in patients with non-myeloid malignancies undergoing myeloablative chemotherapy followed by bone marrow transplantation.Mobilization of hematopoietic progenitor cells into the peripheral blood for collection by leukapheresis.Management of severe chronic neutropenia.Neutropenia is associated with HIV infection.Neonatal neutropenia.

A false or distorted perception of objects, sounds, or events that seems real. Hallucinations usually result from drugs or mental disorders.

Haptens are small molecules that elicit an immune response only when attached to a large carrier such as a protein; the carrier may be one that also does not elicit an immune response by itself (in general, only large molecules, infectious agents, or insoluble foreign matter can elicit an immune response in the body). Once the body has generated antibodies to a hapten-carrier adduct, the small-molecule hapten may also be able to bind to the antibody, but it will usually not initiate an immune response; usually only the hapten-carrier adduct can do this. Sometimes the small-molecule hapten can even block immune response to the hapten-carrier adduct by preventing the adduct from binding to the antibody, a process called hapten inhibition.

Good cholesterol, Cholesterol bound to high-density lipoprotein; ↑ HDL-C and HDL-C : total cholesterol ratio are linked to ↑ longevity and ↓ morbidity and death from MI, CAD, cholesterol-related morbidity; ↑ HDL-C commonly affects ♀ with HTN or obesity, and may be related to environmental causes–eg, alcohol consumption, or therapy with H2-blockers or estrogens

A heart catheterization is used to view the heart’s chamber and valves. A tube (catheter) is inserted into an artery, usually in the groin. A dye is then put into the artery through the tube. The dye makes its way to the heart to create an image of the heart on x-ray film. The image is photographed and stored for further examination.

• The number of heartbeats per unit of time, usually expressed as beats per minute.
• The rate at which the heart contracts; greater than 100 beats per minute is labelled tachycardia, less than 60 beats per minute is labelled bradycardia. Resting bradycardia in trained athletes is normal.

• The predominant electrical activity of the heart. It may be determined by recording an electrocardiogram or by evaluating tracings made by a cardiac monitor

A severe condition caused by prolonged exposure to high heat. Heat stroke interferes with the body’s temperature regulating abilities and can lead to collapse and coma.

A congenital vascular malformation consisting of a benign tumor made up of newly formed blood vessels clustered together; it may be present at birth in various parts of the body, including the liver and bones. In the majority of cases it appears as a network of small blood-filled capillaries near the surface of the skin, forming a reddish or purplish birthmark.

A hematoma is a localized collection of blood outside the blood vessels, due to either disease or trauma including injury or surgery and may involve blood continuing to seep from broken capillaries. A hematoma is initially in liquid form spread among the tissues including in sacs between tissues where it may coagulate and solidify before blood is reabsorbed into blood vessels. An ecchymosis is a hematoma of the skin larger than 10mm.

• Primary carcinoma of the liver cells with hepatomegaly, jaundice, hemoperitoneum, and other symptoms of the presence of an abdominal mass. It is rare in North America and Western Europe but is one of the most common malignancies in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, East Asia, and elsewhere. A strong association seems to exist with chronic hepatitis B virus infection.
• Malignant tumor of the liver that develops in the setting of chronic liver disease or cirrhosis. Hepatocellular carcinoma is derived from hepatocytes that are transformed into adenocarcinoma. Up to 60% of patients with HCC have elevated serum alpha fetoprotein levels. Tumor has a poor long-term prognosis unless treated surgically by resection or liver transplantation. Noninvasive imaging (e.g., MRI or CT scan) may distinguish hepatomas from other benign tumors such as hemangiomas.

Hepatomegaly is the condition of having an enlarged liver. It is a non-specific medical sign having many causes, which can broadly be broken down into infection, hepatic tumours, or metabolic disorder. Often, hepatomegaly will present as an abdominal mass. Depending on the cause, it may sometimes present along with jaundice.

Hepatorenal syndrome (often abbreviated HRS) is a life-threatening medical condition that consists of rapid deterioration in kidney function in individuals with cirrhosis or fulminant liver failure. HRS is usually fatal unless a liver transplant is performed, although various treatments, such as dialysis, can prevent advancement of the condition.

• Hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma is a rare form of lymphoma that is generally incurable, except in the case of an allogeneic stem cell transplant. It is a systemic neoplasm comprising medium-sized cytotoxic T-cells that show significant sinusoidal infiltration in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
• A rare, rapidly progressive lymphoma that develops in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. It has been identified in patients taking immunosuppressive drugs for diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease.

HER2: Human (epidermal growth factor) receptor 2, a receptor that plays an essential role in cell proliferation and differentiation. It is a member of a family of transmembrane tyrosine kinases. The 20 to 25 percent of breast cancers that over-express HER2 have a high rate of recurrence in the first two or three years after surgery. The HER2 gene is on the short arm of chromosome. Over-expression of this gene increases the malignancy of affected cancer cells, enhancing growth and proliferation and increasing their metastatic tendency. The monoclonal antibody drug trastuzumab (Herceptin) which blocks this receptor is effective in reducing the dangers of HER2-expressing breast cancers.

1. An inherited condition characterized by abnormal blood vessels which are delicate and prone to bleeding
2. An AD condition characterized by telangiectases of mucocutaneous surfaces–tongue, nose, lips, hands, feet. Clinical Episodic epistaxis in childhood, chronic GI hemorrhage, palmo-plantar, liver telangiectasias, and lung AV malformations; telangiectasias may be seen on spleen, brain and spinal cord; rupture of the thin-walled vessels may result in hemorrhage of varying severity Treatment Aminocaproic acid, an inhibitor of fibrinolysis.
3. A disease transmitted by autosomal dominant inheritance marked by thinness of the walls of the blood vessels of the nose, skin, and digestive tract, as well as a tendency to hemorrhage

A type of lipoprotein with a relatively high concentration of protein and low concentration of lipids that incorporates cholesterol and transports it to the liver. High levels are associated with a decreased risk of atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease.

Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) is a type of lymphoma in which cancer originates from a specific type of white blood cells called lymphocytes. Symptoms may include fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Often there will be non-painful enlarged lymph nodes in the neck, under the arm, or in the groin. Those affected may feel tired or be itchy.

There are two major types of Hodgkin lymphoma: classical Hodgkin lymphoma and nodular lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin lymphoma. About half of cases of Hodgkin lymphoma are due to Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) and these are generally the classic form. Other risk factors include a family history of the condition and having HIV/AIDS. Diagnosis is by finding Hodgkin cells such as multinucleated Reed–Sternberg cells (RS cells) in lymph nodes. The virus-positive cases are classified as a form of the Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases.

A hormone is any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes: eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid/protein derivatives (amines, peptides, and proteins). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine signaling system. The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (autocrine or intracrine signalling) or nearby cells (paracrine signalling).

Human papillomavirus infection (HPV infection) is an infection caused by human papillomavirus (HPV), a DNA virus from the Papillomaviridae family. About 90% of HPV infections cause no symptoms and resolve spontaneously within two years. However, in some cases, an HPV infection persists and results in either warts or precancerous lesions. These lesions, depending on the site affected, increase the risk of cancer of the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, anus, mouth, tonsils, or throat. Nearly all cervical cancer is due to HPV; two strains, HPV16 and HPV18, accounting for 70% of cases. HPV16 is responsible for almost 90% of HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancers, and the prevalence is higher in males than females. Between 60% and 90% of the other cancers listed above are also linked to HPV. HPV6 and HPV11 are common causes of genital warts and laryngeal papillomatosis.

An antiinflammatory and antiprotozoal agent, used as the sulfate salt in treatment of malaria, lupus erythematosus, and rheumatoid arthritis.

 Unusual flexibility of the joints, allowing them to be bent or moved beyond their normal range of motion.

Hyperplasia (from ancient Greek ὑπέρ huper, “over” + πλάσις plasis, “formation”), or hypergenesis, is an increase in the amount of organic tissue that results from cell proliferation. It may lead to the gross enlargement of an organ, and the term is sometimes confused with benign neoplasia or benign tumor.

Hyperplasia is a common preneoplastic response to a stimulus. Microscopically, cells resemble normal cells but are increased in numbers. Sometimes cells may also be increased in size (hypertrophy). Hyperplasia is different from hypertrophy in that the adaptive cell change in hypertrophy is an increase in the size of cells, whereas hyperplasia involves an increase in the number of cells.

The immune system is a host defense system comprising many biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism’s own healthy tissue. In many species, the immune system can be classified into subsystems, such as the innate immune system versus the adaptive immune system, or humoral immunity versus cell-mediated immunity. In humans, the blood–brain barrier, blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier, and similar fluid–brain barriers separate the peripheral immune system from the neuroimmune system, which protects the brain.

An aggressive B-cell lymphoma believed to arise from transformed interfollicular B lymphocytes, which in many cases is associated with a preexisting immunologic disorder, e.g., Sjögren’s syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus, or Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, or with an immunocompromised state.

a group of T-cell lymphomas comprising tumors derived from T lymphocytes in the paracortical area arising from a mixture of small lymphocytes and many large transformed cells; the latter are characterized by one or more small but distinctly eosinophilic nucleoli.

Pain, redness, swelling, and heat that usually develop in response to injury or illness.

Infliximab is a monoclonal antibody biologic drug that works against tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and is used to treat autoimmune diseases such as Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, and psoriasis.

• Intracranial hemorrhage (ICH), also known as intracranial bleed, is bleeding within the skull. Subtypes are intracerebral bleeds (intraventricular bleeds and intraparenchymal bleeds), subarachnoid bleeds, epidural bleeds, and subdural bleeds.
• bleeding within the cranium, which may be extradural, subdural, subarachnoid, or cerebral.

A stroke is caused by diminished blood flow to a particular artery in the brain, e.g., as a result of a clot in the artery or an embolus lodging in the artery. Ischemic stroke is much more common than hemorrhagic stroke.

1. The jugular veins are veins that bring deoxygenated blood from the head back to the heart via the superior vena cava.
2. Any of the two pairs of bilateral veins that return blood to the heart from the head and neck. The external jugular vein receives the blood from the exterior of the cranium and the deep parts of the face. It lies superficial to the sternocleidomastoid muscle as it passes down the neck to join the subclavian vein. The internal jugular vein receives blood from the brain and superficial parts of the face and neck. It is directly continuous with the transverse sinus, accompanying the internal carotid artery as it passes down the neck, and joins with the subclavian vein to form the innominate vein. The jugular veins are more prominent during expiration than during inspiration and are also prominent during cardiac decompensation.

• cells, located at the vascular pole of the renal corpuscle that secrete renin and form a component of the juxtaglomerular complex; they are modified smooth muscle cells primarily of the afferent arteriole of the renal glomerulus.
• The juxtaglomerular cells (JG cells, or granular cells) are cells in the kidney that synthesize, store, and secrete the enzyme renin. They are specialized smooth muscle cells mainly in the walls of the afferent arterioles (and some in the efferent arterioles) that deliver blood to the glomerulus. In synthesizing renin, they play a critical role in the renin–angiotensin system and thus in autoregulation of the kidney.
  • Juxtaglomerular cells secrete renin in response to a drop in pressure detected by stretch receptors in the vascular walls, or when stimulated by macula densa cells. Macula densa cells are located in the distal convoluted tubule, and stimulate juxtaglomerular cells to release renin when they detect a drop in sodium concentration in tubular fluid. Together, juxtaglomerular cells, extraglomerular mesangial cells and macula densa cells comprise the juxtaglomerular apparatus.

• A multicentric, malignant neoplastic vascular proliferation characterized by bluish red cutaneous nodules, usually on the lower extremities, most often on the toes or feet; the nodules slowly increase in size and number and spread to more proximal sites. Tumors often remain confined to skin and subcutaneous tissue, but widespread visceral involvement may occur. The condition occurs endemically in certain parts of Central Africa and Central and Eastern Europe, and a particularly virulent and disseminated form occurs in immunocompromised patients such as transplant recipients and those with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Human herpesvirus 8 has been implicated as a causative agent.
• A lymphatic endothelial malignancy, rather than a true sarcoma, composed of multiple red or purple macules, papules, or nodules, that is first apparent on the skin or mucous membranes but may involve the internal organs. Once a rare disease seen primarily in elderly men of Mediterranean, African, or Ashkenazi descent (so-called classic KS), it is the most common cancer related to AIDS. In patients with AIDS, KS is believed to be sexually acquired due to acquisition of human herpesvirus 8. When KS is associated with AIDS, it progresses and disseminates rapidly to multiple skin sites, as well as the lymph nodes and visceral organs.

An abnormal outward curvature of the spine, with a hump at the upper back.

β1 (myocardial)- and β2 (pulmonary, vascular, and uterine)-adrenergic receptor blocker taken orally or IV for management of hypertension and Angina.

Common side effects include orthostatic hypotension, dizziness, feeling tired, and nausea. Serious side effects may include hypotension, liver problems, heart failure, and bronchospasm. Use appears safe in the latter part of pregnancy and it is not expected to cause problems during breastfeeding. It works by blocking the activation of β-receptors and α-receptors.

1. A genus of protozoa comprising parasites of worldwide distribution, several species of which are pathogenic for humans. All species are morphologically indistinguishable, and therefore the organisms have usually been assigned to species and subspecies according to their geographic origin, the clinical syndrome they produce, and their ecologic characteristics. They have also been separated based on their tendency to cause visceral, cutaneous, or mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. In some classifications, Leishmania is grouped in four complexes comprising species and subspecies: L. donovani, L. tropica, L. mexicana, and L. viannia.
2. Leishmania is a genus of trypanosomes that are responsible for the disease leishmaniasis. They are spread by sandflies of the genus Phlebotomus in the Old World, and of the genus Lutzomyia in the New World. At least 93 sandfly species are proven or probable vectors worldwide. Their primary hosts are vertebrates; Leishmania commonly infects hyraxes, canids, rodents, and humans.

The protozoan parasite that causes kala-azar.

Any condition in which the number of leukocytes in the circulating blood is lower than normal, the lower limit of which is generally regarded as 4000-5000/mm3

Progressive proliferation of abnormal white blood cells found in hemopoietic tissues, other organs, and usually in the blood in increased numbers. Leukemia is classified by the dominant cell type, and by duration from onset to death, which occurs in acute leukemia within a few months in most cases, and is associated with acute symptoms including severe anemia, hemorrhages, and slight enlargement of lymph nodes or the spleen. The duration of chronic leukemia exceeds 1 year, with a gradual onset of symptoms of anemia or marked enlargement of spleen, liver, or lymph nodes.

Linagliptin is an oral medication used to treat DMT2. It is generally less preferred than metformin and sulfonylureas as an initial treatment. It is used together with exercise and diet. It is not recommended in DMT1

Common side effects include inflammation of the nose and throat. Serious side effects may include angioedema, pancreatitis, joint pain.
Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding is not recommended. Linagliptin is a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor. It works by increasing the production of insulin and decreasing the production of glucagon by the pancreas.

The term lordosis refers to the normal inward lordotic curvature of the lumbar and cervical regions of the human spine.[1] The normal outward (convex) curvature in the thoracic and sacral regions is termed kyphosis or kyphotic. The term comes from the Greek lordōsis, from lordos “bent backward”

• A transparent, usually slightly yellow, often opalescent liquid found within the lymphatic vessels, and collected from tissues in all parts of the body and returned to the blood via the lymphatic system. It is about 95 per cent water; the remainder consists of plasma proteins and other chemical substances contained in the blood plasma, but in slightly smaller percentage than in plasma. Its cellular component consists chiefly of lymphocytes.
• Lymph (from Latin, lympha meaning “water”) is the fluid that flows through the lymphatic system, a system composed of lymph vessels (channels) and intervening lymph nodes whose function, like the venous system, is to return fluid from the tissues to the central circulation. Interstitial fluid – the fluid which is between the cells in all body tissues – enters the lymph capillaries. This lymphatic fluid is then transported via progressively larger lymphatic vessels through lymph nodes, where substances are removed by tissue lymphocytes and circulating lymphocytes are added to the fluid, before emptying ultimately into the right or the left subclavian vein, where it mixes with central venous blood.

• Lymphadenopathy or adenopathy is a disease of the lymph nodes, in which they are abnormal in size or consistency. Lymphadenopathy of an inflammatory type (the most common type) is lymphadenitis, producing swollen or enlarged lymph nodes. In clinical practice, the distinction between lymphadenopathy and lymphadenitis is rarely made and the words are usually treated as synonymous. Inflammation of the lymphatic vessels is known as lymphangitis. Infectious lymphadenitis affecting lymph nodes in the neck is often called scrofula.
  Lymphadenopathy is a common and nonspecific sign. Common causes include infections (from minor ones such as the common cold to serious ones such as HIV/AIDS), autoimmune diseases, and cancers. Lymphadenopathy is also frequently idiopathic and self-limiting.

• The lymphatic system, or lymphoid system, is an organ system in vertebrates that is part of the circulatory system and the immune system. It is made up of a large network of lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, lymphatic or lymphoid organs, and lymphoid tissues. The vessels carry a clear fluid called lymph (the Latin word lympha refers to the deity of fresh water, “Lympha”) towards the heart.
• Unlike the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system is not a closed system. The human circulatory system processes an average of 20 litres of blood per day through capillary filtration, which removes plasma from the blood. Roughly 17 litres of the filtered plasma is reabsorbed directly into the blood vessels, while the remaining three litres are left in the interstitial fluid. One of the main functions of the lymphatic system is to provide an accessory return route to the blood for the surplus three litres.

A lymphoblast is a modified naive lymphocyte with altered cell morphology. It occurs when the lymphocyte is activated by an antigen (from antigen-presenting cells) and increased in volume by nucleus and cytoplasm growth as well as new mRNA and protein synthesis. The lymphoblast then starts dividing two to four times every 24 hours for three to five days, with a single lymphoblast making approximately 1000 clones of its original naive lymphocyte, with each clone sharing the originally unique antigen specificity. Finally the dividing cells differentiate into effector cells, known as plasma cells (for B cells), cytotoxic T cells, and helper T cells. Lymphoblasts can also refer to immature cells which typically differentiate to form mature lymphocytes. Normally lymphoblasts are found in the bone marrow, but in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), lymphoblasts proliferate uncontrollably and are found in large numbers in the peripheral blood.

A progressive, malignant neoplasm of the blood-forming organs, marked by diffuse replacement of the bone marrow development of leukocytes and their precursors in the blood and bone marrow. It is accompanied by a reduced number of erythrocytes and blood platelets, resulting in anemia and increased susceptibility to infection and hemorrhage. Other typical symptoms include fever, pain in the joints and bones, and swelling of the lymph nodes, spleen, and liver.
Types of Leukemia. Leukemia is classified clinically in several ways: (1) acute versus chronic, terms that have become altered from their usual meanings and refer to the degree of cell differentiation; (2) the predominant proliferating cells: myelocytic, granulocytic, or lymphocytic; and (3) increase in or maintenance of the number of abnormal cells in the blood—preleukemic.

• A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell in the vertebrate immune system. Lymphocytes include natural killer cells (which function in cell-mediated, cytotoxic innate immunity), T cells (for cell-mediated, cytotoxic adaptive immunity), and B cells (for humoral, antibody-driven adaptive immunity). They are the main type of cell found in lymph, which prompted the name “lymphocyte”. Lymphocytes make up between 18% and 42% of circulating leukocytes.
• Any of the mononuclear nonphagocytic leukocytes found in the blood, lymph, and lymphoid tissues; they comprise the body’s immunologically competent cells and their precursors. They are divided on the basis of ontogeny and function into two classes, B and T lymphocytes, responsible for humoral and cellular immunity, respectively. Most are small lymphocytes 7–10 μm in diameter with a round or slightly indented heterochromatic nucleus that almost fills the entire cell and a thin rim of basophilic cytoplasm that contains few granules. When activated by contact with antigen, small lymphocytes begin macromolecular synthesis, the cytoplasm enlarges until the cells are 10–30 μm in diameter, and the nucleus becomes less completely heterochromatic; they are then referred to as large lymphocytes or lymphoblasts. These cells then proliferate and differentiate into B and T memory cells and into the various effector cell types, B cells into plasma cells and T cells into helper, cytotoxic, and suppressor cells.

• Lymphoma is a group of blood malignancies that develop from lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell). The name often refers to just the cancerous versions rather than all such tumours. Signs and symptoms may include enlarged lymph nodes, fever, drenching sweats, unintended weight loss, itching, and constantly feeling tired. The enlarged lymph nodes are usually painless. The sweats are most common at night.
  • Many subtypes of lymphomas are known. The two main categories of lymphomas are the non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) (90% of cases) and Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) (10%). The World Health Organization (WHO) includes two other categories as types of lymphoma – multiple myeloma and immunoproliferative diseases. Lymphomas and leukemias are a part of the broader group of tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues.
• Any neoplasm of lymphoid or reticuloendothelial tissues; in general use, synonymous with malignant lymphoma; present as apparently solid tumors composed of cells that appear primitive or resemble lymphocytes, plasma cells, or histiocytes. Lymphomas appear most frequently in the lymph nodes, spleen, or other normal sites of lymphoreticular cells; may invade other organs or manifest as leukemia. Lymphomas are now classified by histology, immunophenotype, and cytogenetic analysis, according to cell of orgin (B or T cells) and degree of maturation. The current World Health Organization (WHO) classification of lymphoid neoplasms is based on the Revised European-American Lymphoma (REAL) classification and effectively replaces older schemes such as the Working Formulation and Rappaport classification, which were based solely on morphology.

Macular degeneration, also known as age-related macular degeneration (AMD or ARMD), is the progressive deterioration of a critical region of the retina called the macula. The macula is a 3-5 mm area in the retina that is responsible for central vision. This disorder leads to irreversible loss of central vision, although peripheral vision is retained. In the early stages, vision may be gray, hazy, or distorted.

Malignancy (from Latin male ‘badly’, and -gnus ‘born’) is the tendency of a medical condition to become progressively worse.

Malignancy is most familiar as a characterization of cancer. A malignant tumor contrasts with a non-cancerous benign tumor in that a malignancy is not self-limited in its growth, is capable of invading into adjacent tissues, and may be capable of spreading to distant tissues. A benign tumor has none of those properties.

Malignancy in cancers is characterized by anaplasia, invasiveness, and metastasis. Malignant tumors are also characterized by genome instability, so that cancers, as assessed by whole genome sequencing, frequently have between 10,000 and 100,000 mutations in their entire genomes. Cancers usually show tumour heterogeneity, containing multiple subclones. They also frequently have reduced expression of DNA repair enzymes due to epigenetic methylation of DNA repair genes or altered microRNAs that control DNA repair gene expression.

Uses of “malignant” in oncology:

• Malignancy, malignant neoplasm and malignant tumor are synonymous with cancer
• Malignant ascites
• Malignant transformation

Non-oncologic disorders referred to as “malignant”:

• Malignant hypertension
• Malignant hyperthermia
• Malignant otitis externa
• Malignant tertian malaria (malaria caused specifically by Plasmodium falciparum)
• Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

Marfan syndrome (MFS) is a genetic disorder of the connective tissue. The degree to which people are affected varies. People with Marfan tend to be tall, and thin, with long arms, legs, fingers and toes. They also typically have flexible joints and scoliosis. The most serious complications involve the heart and aorta with an increased risk of mitral valve prolapse and aortic aneurysm. Other commonly affected areas include the lungs, eyes, bones and the covering of the spinal cord.

A mast cell is a type of white blood cell. Specifically, it is a type of granulocyte derived from the myeloid stem cell that is a part of the immune and neuroimmune systems and contains many granules rich in histamine and heparin. Although best known for their role in allergy and anaphylaxis, mast cells play an important protective role as well, being intimately involved in wound healing, angiogenesis, immune tolerance, defense against pathogens, and blood–brain barrier function.

Melphalan is a nitrogen mustard alkylating agent chemotherapy medication used to treat multiple myeloma, ovarian cancer, melanoma, and AL amyloidosis. It is taken as a tablet (by mouth) or by injection into a vein. It works by interfering with the creation of DNA and RNA.

Common side effects include nausea and bone marrow suppression. Other severe side effects may include anaphylaxis and the development of other cancers. Use during pregnancy may result in harm to the baby. 

A mental disorder, also called a mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a behavioral or mental pattern that may cause suffering or a poor ability to function in life. Such features may be persistent, relapsing and remitting, or occur as a single episode. Many disorders have been described, with signs and symptoms that vary widely between specific disorders.

The middle of the three primary germ layers of the embryo, lying between the ectoderm and entoderm; from it are derived the connective tissue, bone, cartilage, muscle, blood and blood vessels, lymphatics, lymphoid organs, notochord, pleura, pericardium, peritoneum, kidneys, and gonads.

• somatic mesoderm the outer layer of the developing mesoderm.
• splanchnic mesoderm the inner layer of the developing mesoderm.

1. Biotransformation.
2. The sum of the physical and chemical processes by which living organized substance is built up and maintained (anabolism), and by which large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules to make energy available to the organism (catabolism). Essentially these processes are concerned with the disposition of the nutrients absorbed into the blood following digestion.

Metaplasia (Greek: “change in form”) is the transformation of one differentiated cell type to another differentiated cell type. The change from one type of cell to another may be part of a normal maturation process, or caused by some sort of abnormal stimulus. In simplistic terms, it is as if the original cells are not robust enough to withstand their environment, so they transform into another cell type better suited to their environment. If the stimulus causing metaplasia is removed or ceases, tissues return to their normal pattern of differentiation. Metaplasia is not synonymous with dysplasia, and is not considered to be an actual cancer. It is also contrasted with heteroplasia, which is the spontaneous abnormal growth of cytologic and histologic elements. Today, metaplastic changes are usually considered to be an early phase of carcinogenesis, specifically for those with a history of cancers or who are known to be susceptible to carcinogenic changes. Metaplastic change is thus often viewed as a premalignant condition that requires immediate intervention, either surgical or medical, lest it lead to cancer via malignant transformation.

• Metastasis is a pathogenic agent’s spread from an initial or primary site to a different or secondary site within the host’s body; the term is typically used when referring to metastasis by a cancerous tumor. The newly pathological sites, then, are metastases (mets). It is generally distinguished from cancer invasion, which is the direct extension and penetration by cancer cells into neighboring tissues.
  • Cancer occurs after cells are genetically altered to proliferate rapidly and indefinitely. This uncontrolled proliferation by mitosis produces a primary heterogeneic tumour. The cells which constitute the tumor eventually undergo metaplasia, followed by dysplasia then anaplasia, resulting in a malignant phenotype. This malignancy allows for invasion into the circulation, followed by invasion to a second site for tumorigenesis.
  • Some cancer cells known as circulating tumor cells acquire the ability to penetrate the walls of lymphatic or blood vessels, after which they are able to circulate through the bloodstream to other sites and tissues in the body. This process is known (respectively) as lymphatic or hematogenous spread. After the tumor cells come to rest at another site, they re-penetrate the vessel or walls and continue to multiply, eventually forming another clinically detectable tumor. This new tumor is known as a metastatic (or secondary) tumor. Metastasis is one of the hallmarks of cancer, distinguishing it from benign tumors. Most cancers can metastasize, although in varying degrees. Basal cell carcinoma for example rarely metastasizes.

• The shifting of a disease or its local manifestations, from one part of the body to another, as in mumps when the symptoms referable to the parotid gland subside and the testis becomes affected.
  • The spread of a disease process from one part of the body to another, as in the appearance of neoplasms in parts of the body remote from the site of the primary tumor; results from dissemination of tumor cells by the lymphatics or blood vessels or by direct extension through serous cavities or subarachnoid or other spaces.
  • Transportation of bacteria from one part of the body to another, through the bloodstream (hematogenous metastasis) or through lymph channels (lymphogenous metastasis).

An oral hypoglycemic drug, C4H11N5, is usually used in its hydrochloride form, which decreases glucose production by the liver and increases peripheral glucose uptake, which is used to treat type 2 diabetes.
Adverse effects include diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal pain. It has a low risk of causing low blood sugar. High blood lactic acid level is a concern if the medication is used in overly large doses or prescribed in persons with severe kidney problems.

A cardioselective β1 receptor blocker. Having a greater effect on β1-adrenergic receptors of the heart than on the β2-adrenergic receptors of the bronchi and blood vessels It is used to treat hypertension, chest pain due to poor blood flow to the heart, tachycardia, MI, and migraine headache.

Mometasone, also known as mometasone furoate, is a steroid medication used to treat certain skin conditions, hay fever, and asthma. Specifically, it is used to prevent rather than treat asthma attacks. It can be applied to the skin, inhaled, or used in the nose. Mometasone furoate, not mometasone is used in medical products.

Common side effects

• when used for asthma, include headache, sore throat, and thrush. It is therefore recommended to rinse the mouth after use. Long-term use may increase the risk for glaucoma and cataracts.
• when used in the nose includes upper respiratory tract infections and nose bleeds.
• when applied on the skin include acne, skin atrophy, and itchiness. It works by decreasing inflammation.

An antibody produced by a clone or genetically homogeneous population of fused hybrid cells, that is, hybridoma. Hybrid cells are cloned to establish cell lines producing a specific antibody that is chemically and immunologically homogeneous.

A neuron that conveys impulses from the central nervous system to a muscle, gland, or other effector tissue.

Mucokinetics are a class of drugs which aid in the clearance of mucus from the airways, lungs, bronchi, and trachea. Such drugs can be further categorized by their mechanism of action:

• mucolytic agents
• expectorants
• surfactants
  • wetting agents (hypoviscosity agents)
  • abhesives

A mucolytic agent is an agent which dissolves thick mucus and is usually used to help relieve respiratory difficulties. It does so by dissolving various chemical bonds within secretions, which in turn can lower the viscosity by altering the mucin-containing components.

Mucus is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes. It is typically produced from cells found in mucous glands, although it may also originate from mixed glands, which contain both serous and mucous cells. It is a viscous colloid containing inorganic salts, antiseptic enzymes (such as lysozymes), immunoglobulins, and glycoproteins such as lactoferrin and mucins, which are produced by goblet cells in the mucous membranes and submucosal glands. Mucus serves to protect epithelial cells (that line the tubes) in the respiratory, gastrointestinal, urogenital, visual, and auditory systems; the epidermis in amphibians; and the gills in fish, against infectious agents such as fungi, bacteria and viruses. The average human nose produces about a liter of mucus per day. Most of the mucus produced is in the gastrointestinal tract.

Multiple myeloma, also known as plasma cell myeloma, is the second-most common cancer of the blood. It is the most common type of plasma cell neoplasm. Multiple myeloma accounts for approximately 1% of all cancers and 2% of all deaths from cancer. Multiple myeloma is a disease in which malignant plasma cells spread through the bone marrow and hard outer portions of the large bones of the body. These myeloma cells may form tumors called plasmacytomas. Eventually, multiple soft spots or holes, called osteolytic lesions, form in the bones.
Bone marrow is the spongy tissue within the bones. The breastbone, spine, ribs, skull, pelvic bones, and the long bone of the thigh all are particularly rich in marrow. Bone marrow is a very active tissue that is responsible for producing the cells that circulate in the blood. These include the red blood cells that carry oxygen, the white blood cells that develop into immune system cells, and platelets, which cause blood to clot.

 A chronic disease with symptoms that include muscle weakness and sometimes paralysis.

A neoplasm (/ˈniːoʊplæzəm, ˈniə-/) is a type of abnormal and excessive growth, called neoplasia, of tissue. The growth of a neoplasm is uncoordinated with that of the normal surrounding tissue, and persists in growing abnormally, even if the original trigger is removed. This abnormal growth usually forms a mass, when it may be called a tumor.

ICD-10 classifies neoplasms into four main groups: benign neoplasms, in situ neoplasms, malignant neoplasms, and neoplasms of uncertain or unknown behavior. Malignant neoplasms are also simply known as cancers and are the focus of oncology.

Prior to the abnormal growth of tissue, as neoplasia, cells often undergo an abnormal pattern of growth, such as metaplasia or dysplasia. However, metaplasia or dysplasia does not always progress to neoplasia and can occur in other conditions as well. The word is from Ancient Greek νέος- neo (“new”) and πλάσμα plasma (“formation”, “creation”).

• A neoplasm is a type of abnormal and excessive growth, called neoplasia, of tissue. The growth of a neoplasm is uncoordinated with that of the normal surrounding tissue, and persists in growing abnormally, even if the original trigger is removed. This abnormal growth usually forms a mass, when it may be called a tumor.
• An abnormal tissue that grows by cellular proliferation more rapidly than normal and continues to grow after the stimuli that initiated the new growth cease. Neoplasms show partial or complete lack of structural organization and functional coordination with the normal tissue, and usually form a distinct mass of tissue that may be either benign (benign tumor) or malignant (cancer).

Nervous system is the organ system that, along with the endocrine system, correlates the adjustments and reactions of an organism to internal and environmental conditions. It is composed of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, which act together to serve as the communicating and coordinating system of the body, carrying information to the brain and relaying instructions from the brain. The system has two main divisions: the central nervous system, composed of the brain and spinal cord; and the peripheral nervous system, which is subdivided into the voluntary and autonomic nervous systems.

Abnormal structures, composed of twisted masses of protein fibers within nerve cells, found in the brains of people with Alzheimer’s disease.

The neuroimmune system is a system of structures and processes involving the biochemical and electrophysiological interactions between the nervous system and immune system which protect neurons from pathogens. It serves to protect neurons against disease by maintaining selectively permeable barriers (e.g., the blood–brain barrier and blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier), mediating neuroinflammation and wound healing in damaged neurons, and mobilizing host defenses against pathogens.

A term coined to refer to the effects on cognition and behavior of the original antipsychotic agents, which produced a state of apathy, lack of initiative, and limited range of emotion and in psychotic patients caused a reduction in confusion and agitation and normalization of psychomotor activity. The term is still used to refer to agents, such as droperidol, used to produce such effects as part of anesthesia or analgesia; however, it is outdated as a synonym for antipsychotic agents because newer agents do not necessarily have such effects.

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome a rare but dramatic condition that occurs in severely ill patients being treated with high-potency antipsychotics (neuroleptics); symptoms include diaphoresis, muscle rigidity, and hyperpyrexia. It is believed to be caused by dopamine blockade in the hypothalamus.

A highly specialized cell of the nervous system, having two characteristic properties: irritability (ability to be stimulated) and conductivity (ability to conduct impulses). They are composed of a cell body (called also neurosome or perikaryon), containing the nucleus and its surrounding cytoplasm, and one or more processes (nerve fibers) extending from the body. These signals between neurons occur via specialized connections called synapses. Neurons can connect to each other to form neural networks. Neurons are major components of the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS), and of the autonomic ganglia of the peripheral nervous system.

1. One of a group of chemicals secreted by a nerve cell (neuron) to carry a chemical message to another nerve cell, often as a way of transmitting a nerve impulse. Examples of neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.
2. A substance stored in the synaptic vesicles that is released when the axon terminal is excited by a nervous impulse. The substance then travels across the synaptic cleft to either excite or inhibit another neuron. This is accomplished by either decreasing the negativity of postsynaptic potentials (excitation), or increasing the negativity of postsynaptic potentials (inhibition). Common neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, dopamine, endorphins, adrenaline (epinephrine), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), amino acids, such as glutamate and glycine, noradrenaline (norepinephrine), serotonin and substance P. Common neurotransmitters in the retina are glutamate (the primary excitatory neurotransmitter), GABA (inhibitory), glycine (inhibitory), dopamine (excitatory) and acetylcholine (excitatory).

• Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is a group of blood cancers that includes all types of lymphomas except Hodgkin lymphomas. Symptoms include enlarged lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, weight loss and tiredness. Other symptoms may include bone pain, chest pain or itchiness. Some forms are slow-growing, while others are fast-growing.

  • Lymphomas are types of cancer that develop from lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. Risk factors include poor immune function, autoimmune diseases, Helicobacter pylori infection, hepatitis C, obesity, and Epstein–Barr virus infection. The World Health Organization classifies lymphomas into five major groups, including one for Hodgkin lymphoma. Within the four groups for NHL are over 60 specific types of lymphoma. Diagnosis is by examination of a bone marrow or lymph node biopsy. Medical imaging is done to help with cancer staging.

• Non-Hodgkin’s l’s a heterogeneous group of malignant lymphomas whose common feature is absence of the giant Reed-Sternberg cells characteristic of hodgkin’s disease. They arise from the lymphoid components of the immune system, and present a clinical picture broadly similar to that of Hodgkin’s disease except that these diseases are initially more widespread, with the most common manifestation being painless enlargement of one or more peripheral lymph nodes. The nomenclature and classification of these lymphomas has been a subject of controversy. One widely accepted classification is based on two criteria: cytologic characteristics of the constituent cells and type of cell growth pattern (defined as either nodular [follicular] or diffuse). Another system of classification is based on the cell type of origin: T- or B-lymphocytes or histiocytes. Still another formulation has been proposed, separating non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas into major histopathologic subtypes using only morphologic criteria.

Any of the high-molecular-weight molecules that carry the genetic information crucial to the replication of cells and the manufacturing of cellular proteins. They have a complex structure formed of sugars (pentoses), phosphoric acid, and nitrogen bases (purines and pyrimidines). Most important are ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

1. Nystagmus is a condition of involuntary (or voluntary, in rare cases) eye movement, acquired in infancy or later in life, that may result in reduced or limited vision. Due to the involuntary movement of the eye, it is often called “dancing eyes”.
2. Rhythmic, oscillating motions of the eyes are called nystagmus. The to-and-fro motion is generally involuntary. Vertical nystagmus occurs much less frequently than horizontal nystagmus and is often, but not necessarily, a sign of serious brain damage. Nystagmus can be a normal physiological response or a result of a pathologic problem.

Olanzapine is an atypical antipsychotic, used for the treatment of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Olanzapine is structurally similar to clozapine and quetiapine. It is a dopamine antagonist and is classified as a thienobenzodiazepine. Olanzapine has a higher affinity for 5-HT_2A serotonin receptors than D₂ dopamine receptors, which is a common property of all atypical antipsychotics, aside from the benzamide antipsychotics such as amisulpride. Olanzapine also had the highest affinity of any second-generation antipsychotic towards the P-glycoprotein in one in vitro study.

A glial cell found most commonly in axon tracts; it myelinates axons in the central nervous system just as Schwann cells myelinate axons in the peripheral nervous system. Oligodendrocytes are neuroectodermal cells that originate from different precursors in the neural tube than astrocytes; later, stem cells in the subependymal layer can continue to generate new oligodendrocytes. Mature oligodendrocytes wrap neighboring axons in myelin, and some oligodendrocytes can simultaneously wrap many axons. However, not all oligodendrocytes myelinate axons.

An osteoclast is a type of bone cell that breaks down bone tissue. This function is critical in the maintenance, repair, and remodeling of bones of the vertebral skeleton. The osteoclast disassembles and digests the composite of hydrated protein and minerals at a molecular level by secreting acid and collagenase, a process known as bone resorption. This process also helps regulate the level of blood calcium.

Paclitaxel (PTX), sold under the brand name Taxol among others, is a chemotherapy medication used to treat a number of types of cancer. This includes ovarian cancer, esophageal cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, Kaposi sarcoma, cervical cancer, and pancreatic cancer. It is given by injection into a vein. There is also an albumin-bound formulation.

Common side effects include hair loss, bone marrow suppression, numbness, allergic reactions, muscle pains, and diarrhea. Other serious side effects include heart problems, increased risk of infection, and lung inflammation. There are concerns that use during pregnancy may cause birth defects. Paclitaxel is in the taxane family of medications. It works by interference with the normal function of microtubules during cell division.

Rapid, forceful, throbbing, or fluttering heartbeat.

Pantoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor that decreases gastric acid secretion. It works by inactivating (H+/K+)-ATPase function in the stomach.
Indication:

• Treatment of stomach ulcers
• short-term treatment of erosive esophagitis due to gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
• maintenance of healing of erosive esophagitis
• pathological hypersecretory conditions including Zollinger–Ellison syndrome.
• It may also be used along with other medications to eliminate Helicobacter pylori.

Effectiveness is similar to other proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). It is available by mouth and by injection into a vein.

Common side effects include headaches, diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and joint pain.
Serious side effects: may include severe allergic reactions, a type of chronic inflammation known as atrophic gastritis, Clostridium difficile colitis, low magnesium, and vitamin B12 deficiency. Pregnancy: Use in pregnancy appears to be safe.

Papillomaviridae is a family of non-enveloped DNA viruses whose members are known as papillomaviruses. Several hundred species of papillomaviruses, traditionally referred to as “types”, have been identified infecting all carefully inspected mammals, but also other vertebrates such as birds, snakes, turtles and fish. Infection by most papillomavirus types, depending on the type, is either asymptomatic (e.g. most Beta-PVs) or causes small benign tumors, known as papillomas or warts (e.g. human papillomavirus 1, HPV6 or HPV11). Papillomas caused by some types, however, such as human papillomaviruses 16 and 18, carry a risk of becoming cancerous.

• Human papillomavirus any of numerous species that cause warts, particularly plantar and venereal warts, on the skin and mucous membranes in humans, transmitted by either direct or indirect contact. They have also been associated with cervical cancer.
• A genus of viruses (family Papovaviridae) containing double-stranded circular DNA (MW 5 × 106), having virions about 55 nm in diameter, and including the papilloma and wart viruses of humans and other animals, some of which are associated with induction of carcinoma. More than 70 types are known to infect humans and are differentiated by DNA homology.

1. The branch of medicine treating of the essential nature of disease, especially of the changes in body tissues and organs that cause or are caused by disease.
2. The structural and functional manifestations of a disease.

An abnormality of the chest in which the sternum (breastbone) is pushed outward. It is sometimes called “pigeon breast.”

 An abnormality of the chest in which the sternum (breastbone) sinks inward; sometimes called “funnel chest.”

Pericardiocentesis is a procedure used to test for viruses, bacteria, and fungus. The physician puts a small tube through the skin, directly into the pericardial sac, and withdraws fluid. The fluid then is tested for viruses,

Inflammation of the pericardium
Etiology: Infection–eg, polio, influenza, rubella, adenovirus, coxsackieviruses, TB, rheumatic fever, injury or trauma to chest, esophagus, heart;. systemic diseases such as CA, kidney failure, leukemia, AIDS or AIDS related disorders, autoimmune disorders, acute MI, myocarditis, RT to chest, immunosuppressants.
Clinical: Pain due to rubbing of pericardium against heart, pericardial effusion
Types Bacterial pericarditis, constrictive pericarditis, post-MI pericarditis
Diff Dx: Restrictive cardiomyopathy

The fibroserous sac enclosing the heart and the roots of the great vessels, composed of external (fibrous) and internal (serous) layers.
Adherent pericardium: one abnormally connected with the heart by dense fibrous tissue.
Fibrous pericardium: the external layer of the pericardium, consisting of dense fibrous tissue.
Parietal pericardium the parietal layer of the serous pericardium, which is in contact with the fibrous pericardium.
Serous pericardium: the inner, serous portion of pericardium, consisting of two layers, visceral and parietal; the space between the layers is the pericardial cavity.
Visceral pericardium: the inner layer of the serous pericardium, which is in contact with the heart and roots of the great vessels. Called also .

Perindopril is a long-acting ACE inhibitor used to treat hypertension, heart failure, or stable coronary artery disease in form of perindopril arginine (trade names include Coversyl, Coversum) or perindopril erbumine (Aceon). According to the Australian government’s Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme website, based on data provided to the Australian Department of Health and Ageing by the manufacturer, perindopril arginine and perindopril erbumine are therapeutically equivalent and may be interchanged without differences in clinical effect. However, the dose prescribed to achieve the same effect differs due to different molecular weights for the two forms. A prodrug, perindopril is hydrolyzed to its active metabolite, perindoprilat, in the liver.

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is a narrowing of the arteries other than those that supply the heart or the brain. When narrowing occurs in the heart, it is called coronary artery disease, while, in the brain, it is called cerebrovascular disease. Peripheral artery disease most commonly affects the legs, but other arteries may also be involved. The classic symptom is leg pain when walking which resolves with rest, known as intermittent claudication. Other symptoms including skin ulcers, bluish skin, cold skin, or poor nail and hair growth may occur in the affected leg. Complications may include an infection or tissue death which may require amputation; coronary artery disease, or stroke. Up to 50% of cases of PAD are without symptoms.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the part of the nervous system that consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord. The main function of the PNS is to connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the limbs and organs, essentially serving as a communication relay going back and forth between the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by the bone of spine and skull, or by the blood–brain barrier, which leaves it exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries. The peripheral nervous system is mainly divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. In the somatic nervous system, the cranial nerves are part of the PNS with the exception of cranial nerve II, the optic nerve, along with the retina. The second cranial nerve is not a true peripheral nerve but a tract of the diencephalon. Cranial nerve ganglia originate in the CNS. However, the remaining ten cranial nerve axons extend beyond the brain and are therefore considered part of the PNS. The Autonomic nervous system is an involuntary control of smooth muscle. The connection between CNS and organs allows the system to be in two different functional states: sympathetic and parasympathetic.

Pharmacodynamics is the study of the biochemical and physiologic effects of drugs. The effects can include those manifested within animals (including humans), microorganisms, or combinations of organisms (for example, infection). Pharmacodynamics is the study of how a drug affects an organism, whereas pharmacokinetics is the study of how the organism affects the drug. Both together influence dosing, benefit, and adverse effects. Pharmacodynamics is sometimes abbreviated as PD and pharmacokinetics as PK, especially in combined reference (for example, when speaking of PK/PD models).

The study of the movement of drugs in the body, including the processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion.

1. A work that describes therapeutic agents, standards for their strength and purity, and their formulations. The various national pharmacopeias are referred to by abbreviations, of which the most frequently encountered are USP, United States Pharmacopeia, and BP, British Pharmacopoeia.
2. A book containing an official list of medicinal drugs together with articles on their preparation and use.

1. the branch of the health sciences dealing with the preparation, dispensing, and proper utilization of drugs.
2. a place where drugs are compounded or dispensed.

An alkaloid obtained from the leaves of Pilocarpus microphyllus and other species of Pilocarpus. It is a parasympathomimetic (direct-acting cholinergic) drug, which mimics the effect of acetylcholine causing miosis and accommodation. It counteracts sympathomimetic mydriatics. It is used in the treatment of glaucoma. Pilocarpine hydrochloride is most commonly applied to the eye as a 1% solution. Carbachol and bethanechol chloride are other parasympathomimetic drugs with similar effects to pilocarpine.

It stimulates glands, resulting in diaphoresis, salivation, lacrimation it may be used to treat post-radiation or opioid-induced xerostomia, gastric and pancreatic secretion

The master endocrine gland, attached by a stalk to the base of the brain. Its two lobes (the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis) secrete hormones affecting skeletal growth, development of the sex glands, and the functioning of the other endocrine glands.

• Plasma cells, also called plasma B cells, are white blood cells that originate in the bone marrow and secrete large quantities of proteins called antibodies in response to being presented specific substances called antigens. These antibodies are transported from the plasma cells by the blood plasma and the lymphatic system to the site of the target antigen (foreign substance), where they initiate its neutralization or destruction. B cells differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibody molecules closely modeled after the receptors of the precursor B cell.
• Any of the antibody-secreting cells found in lymphoid tissue and derived from B cells upon lymphokine stimulation and reaction with a specific antigen.
• An ovoid cell with an eccentric nucleus; the cytoplasm is strongly basophilic because of the abundant RNA in its endoplasmic reticulum; plasma cells are derived from B lymphocytes and are active in the formation and secretion of antibodies.

Plasma cells are white blood cells that secrete large volumes of antibodies. They are transported by the blood plasma and the lymphatic system. Plasma cells originate in the bone marrow; B cells differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibody molecules closely modelled after the receptors of the precursor B cell. Once released into the blood and lymph, these antibody molecules bind to the target antigen (foreign substance) and initiate its neutralization or destruction.

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) refers to symptoms that occur between ovulation and the onset of menstruation. The symptoms include both physical symptoms, such as breast tenderness, back pain, abdominal cramps, headache, and changes in appetite, as well as psychological symptoms of anxiety, depression, and unrest. Severe forms of this syndrome are referred to as premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). These symptoms may be related to hormones and emotional disorders.

Prochlorperazine is a dopamine (D2) receptor antagonist that belongs to the phenothiazine class of antipsychotic agents that are used for the antiemetic treatment of nausea and vertigo. It is also a highly potent typical antipsychotic, 10–20 times more potent than chlorpromazine. It is also used to treat migraine headaches. Intravenous administration can be used to treat status migrainosus.

• The reproduction or multiplication of similar forms, especially of cells.
• To grow or multiply by rapidly producing new tissue, parts, cells, or offspring.
• To increase or spread at a rapid rate.

Prostaglandin E synthase (or PGE synthase) is an enzyme involved in eicosanoid and glutathione metabolism, a member of MAPEG family. It generates prostaglandin E (PGE) from prostaglandin H2. The synthase generating PGE2 is a membrane-associated protein.

 A donut-shaped gland below the bladder in men that contributes to the production of semen.

A skin disease in which people have itchy, scaly, red patches on the skin.

• Having a stimulating effect on the mind
• Exerting a stimulating effect on the mind

In pharmacology, a psycholeptic is a medication which produces a calming effect upon a person. Such medications include barbiturates, benzodiazepines, nonbenzodiazepines, phenothiazines, opiates/opioids, carbamates, ethanol, 2-methyl-2-butanol, cannabinoids (in some classifications), some antidepressants, neuroleptics, and some anticonvulsants. Many herbal medicines may also be classified as psycholeptics (e.g. kava)

The psycholeptics are classified under N05 in the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System.

• Having an altering effect on perception, emotion, or behavior. Used especially of a drug
• Capable of affecting the mind, emotions, and behavior; denoting drugs used in the treatment of mental illnesses

Quetiapine, is a dibenzothiazepine, atypical antipsychotic used orally for the treatment of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder. It is also sometimes used as a sleep aid due to its sedating effect, but this use is not recommended. Quetiapine is a dopamine, serotonin, and adrenergic antagonist, and a potent antihistamine with clinically negligible anticholinergic properties.

An antipsychotic medication. It is mainly used to treat schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and irritability in people with autism. It is taken either by mouth or by injection into a muscle. The injectable version is long acting and lasts for about two weeks. It antagonizes serotonin₂ and dopamine₂ receptors in CNS. Also binds to alpha₁-and alpha₂-adrenergic receptors and histamine H₁ receptors.

Rivaroxaban is an anticoagulant medication (blood thinner) that works by blocking the activity of the clotting protein factor Xa, taken orally to treat and prevent blood clots. Specifically, it is used to treat deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary emboli and prevent blood clots in atrial fibrillation and following hip or knee surgery.

Common side effects include bleeding. Other serious side effects may include spinal hematoma and anaphylaxis. It is unclear if use in pregnancy and breastfeeding is safe. Compared to warfarin it has fewer interactions with other medications.

• A sarcoma is a malignant tumor, a type of cancer that arises from transformed cells of mesenchymal (connective tissue) origin. Connective tissue is a broad term that includes bone, cartilage, fat, vascular, or hematopoietic tissues, and sarcomas can arise in any of these types of tissues. As a result, there are many subtypes of sarcoma, which are classified based on the specific tissue and type of cell from which the tumor originates. Sarcomas are primary connective tissue tumors, meaning that they arise in connective tissues. This is in contrast to secondary (or “metastatic”) connective tissue tumors, which occur when a cancer from elsewhere in the body (such as the lungs, breast tissue or prostate) spreads to the connective tissue. The word sarcoma is derived from the Greek σάρκωμα sarkōma “fleshy excrescence or substance”, itself from σάρξ sarx meaning “flesh”.
• A tumor, often highly malignant, composed of cells derived from connective tissue such as bone, cartilage, muscle, blood vessel, or lymphoid tissue; sarcomas usually develop rapidly and metastasize through the lymph channels. Different types are named for the specific tissue they affect: fibrosarcoma in fibrous connective tissue; lymphosarcoma in lymphoid tissues; osteosarcoma in bone; chondrosarcoma in cartilage; rhabdosarcoma in muscle; and liposarcoma in fat cells.

A genus of parasitic blood flukes belonging to the family Schistosomatidae, class Trematoda.
Schistosoma haematobium
A species common in Africa and southwestern Asia. Adults infest the pelvic veins of the vesical plexus. Eggs work their way through the bladder wall of the host and are discharged in the urine. Urinary schistosomiasis is caused by this organism.
Schistosoma japonicum
A species common in many parts of Asia. Adults live principally in branches of the superior mesenteric vein. Eggs work their way through the intestinal wall of the host into the lumen and are discharged with feces. Oriental schistosomiasis is caused by this species.
Schistosoma mansoni
A species occurring in many parts of Africa and tropical America, including the West Indies. Adults live in branches of the inferior mesenteric veins. Eggs are discharged through either the host’s intestine or bladder. This species causes bilharzial dysentery or Manson’s intestinal schistosomiasis.

Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by abnormal social behavior and failure to understand what is real. Common symptoms include false beliefs, unclear or confused thinking, hearing voices that others do not hear, reduced social engagement and emotional expression, and a lack of motivation. People with schizophrenia often have additional mental health problems such as anxiety disorders, major depressive illness, or substance-use disorders. Symptoms typically come on gradually, begin in young adulthood, and last a long time.

Scoliosis is defined as a three-dimensional deviation in the axis of a person’s spine In the diagnostic sense it is defined as a spinal curvature of more than 10 degrees to the right or left as the examiner faces the person, i.e. in the coronal plane. Deformity may also exist to the front or back as the examiner looks at the person from the side, i.e. in the sagittal plane. Scoliosis has been described as a biomechanical deformity, the progression of which depends on asymmetric forces otherwise known as the Heuter-Volkmann law.

Also known as winter depression, winter blues, summer depression or seasonal depression, is a mood disorder subset in which people who have normal mental health throughout most of the year experience depressive symptoms at the same time each year, most commonly in the winter.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist. It increases the production of insulin, a hormone that lowers the blood sugar level. It also appears to enhance growth of β cells in the pancreas, which are the sites of insulin production. On the other hand it inhibits glucagon, which increases blood sugar. Used for treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus, It additionally reduces food intake by lowering appetite and slows down digestion in the stomach. In this way it works in body fat reduction.

Abnormal structures, composed of parts of nerve cells surrounding protein deposits, found in the brains of people with Alzheimer’s disease.

A neuron that conducts sensory impulses toward the brain or spinal cord.

A selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor – SSRI antidepressant that blocks the reuptake of serotonin at the synapse more potently than that of norepinephrine Indications Panic disorder, major depression, dysphoria, OCD, PTSD
Contraindications MAOI therapy
Adverse reactions Nausea, insomnia, somnolence, diarrhea, 1º ejaculatory delay; in children, hyperkinesia, twitching, fever, malaise, purpura, ↓ weight, emotional lability, ↓ urine concentration.

1. An antihyperlipidemic agent that acts by inhibiting cholesterol synthesis, used in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia and other forms of dyslipidemia and to lower the risks associated with atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease; administered orally.
2. A statin medication acts by inhibiting 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG) coenzyme A reductase. HMG-CoA reductase, the rate-limiting enzyme of the HMG-CoA reductase pathway, the metabolic pathway responsible for the endogenous production of cholesterol.

Solifenacin is an oral muscarinic (cholinergic) antagonist, that works by decreasing bladder contractions, is used to treat overactive bladder and neurogenic detrusor overactivity (NDO). It may help with incontinence, urinary frequency, and urinary urgency. Benefits appear similar to other medications in the class.

Common side effects include dry mouth, constipation, and urinary tract infection.
Severe side effects may include urinary retention, QT prolongation, hallucinations, glaucoma, and anaphylaxis.
Pregnancy category: C

A superficial spider-like cluster of capillaries composed of a central ‘feeder’ vessel and multiple minute tortuous and dilated radiating vessels with a peripheral erythaema; when the involved vessel is large, it may pulsate and blanch on pressure; while classically due to increased circulating oestrogens as seen in pregnancy and alcoholic cirrhosis, SAs may occur in chronic hepatic congestion 2º to constrictive pericarditis and may be a normal birthmark in children

Spironolactone is a potassium-sparing diuretic medication that is primarily used to treat fluid build-up due to heart failure, liver scarring, or kidney disease. It is also used in the treatment of high blood pressure, low blood potassium that does not improve with supplementation, early puberty in boys, acne, and excessive hair growth in women, and as a part of transgender hormone therapy in transgender women. Spironolactone is taken by mouth.

Common side effects include electrolyte abnormalities, particularly hyperkalemia, nausea, vomiting, headache, rashes, and a decreased libido. In those with liver or kidney problems, extra care should be taken. Spironolactone has not been well studied in pregnancy and should not be used to treat high blood pressure of pregnancy. It is a steroid that blocks the effects of the hormones aldosterone and testosterone and has some estrogen-like effects.

A carcinoma composed principally of anaplastic, squamous epithelial cells

A steroid hormone is a steroid that acts as a hormone. Steroid hormones can be grouped into two classes:

• Corticosteroids (typically made in the adrenal cortex, hence cortico-): include glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids
• Sex steroids (typically made in the gonads or placenta), include: androgens, estrogens, and progestogens.

Steroid hormones help control metabolism, inflammation, immune functions, salt and water balance, development of sexual characteristics, and the ability to withstand illness and injury. The term steroid describes both hormones produced by the body and artificially produced medications that duplicate the action for the naturally occurring steroids.

A genus of nonmotile, aerobic, gram-positive bacteria (family Streptomycetaceae) that grow in the form of a many-branched mycelium; conidia are produced in chains on aerial hyphae. These organisms are predominantly saprophytic soil forms; some are parasitic on plants or animals; many produce antibiotics.

• Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is bleeding into the subarachnoid space—the area between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater surrounding the brain. Symptoms may include a severe headache of rapid onset, vomiting, decreased level of consciousness, fever, and sometimes seizures. Neck stiffness or neck pain are also relatively common
• A subarachnoid hemorrhage is an abnormal and very dangerous condition in which blood collects beneath the arachnoid mater, a membrane that covers the brain. This area, called the subarachnoid space, normally contains cerebrospinal fluid. The accumulation of blood in the subarachnoid space can lead to stroke, seizures, and other complications. Additionally, subarachnoid hemorrhages may cause permanent brain damage and a number of harmful biochemical events in the brain. A subarachnoid hemorrhage and the related problems are frequently fatal.

Beneath the diaphragm

Dementia that resulting from exposure to or use or abuse of a substance, such as alcohol, sedatives, anxiolytics, anticonvulsants, lead, mercury, carbon monoxide, or organophosphate insecticides, but persisting long after exposure to the substance ends, usually with permanent and worsening deficits. Individual cases are named for the specific substance involved.

The substantia nigra is a brain structure located in the mesencephalon (midbrain) that plays an important role in reward and movement. Substantia nigra is Latin for “black substance”, reflecting the fact that parts of the substantia nigra appear darker than neighboring areas due to high levels of neuromelanin in dopaminergic neurons. Parkinson’s disease is characterized by the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Although the substantia nigra appears as a continuous band in brain sections, anatomical studies have found that it actually consists of two parts with very different connections and functions: the pars compacta and the pars reticulata. The pars compacta serves mainly as an input to the basal ganglia circuit, supplying the striatum with dopamine. The pars reticulata, though, serves mainly as an output, conveying signals from the basal ganglia to numerous other brain structures.

A chronic disease that affects the skin, joints, and certain internal organs.

Tamsulosin is an oral medication used to treat symptomatic benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and chronic prostatitis and to help with the passage of kidney stones. The evidence for benefit with a kidney stone is better when the stone is larger.
Common side effects include dizziness, headache, insomnia, nausea, blurry vision, and sexual dysfunction.
Other side effects may include feeling lightheaded with standing and angioedema. Tamsulosin is an alpha-blocker and works by relaxing muscles in the prostate. Specifically, it is an α₁ adrenergic receptor blocker.

Tardive dyskinesia is a mostly irreversible neurological disorder of involuntary movements caused by long-term use of antipsychotic or neuroleptic drugs.

Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a disorder that results in involuntary, repetitive body movements. This may include grimacing, sticking out the tongue, or smacking of the lips. Additionally there may be rapid jerking movements or slow writhing movements.

A vascular lesion formed by dilatation of a group of small blood vessels. It may appear as a birthmark or become apparent in young children. It may also be caused by long-term sun exposure. Although the lesion may occur anywhere on the skin, it is seen most frequently on the face and thighs.

Temazepam is an oral intermediate-acting benzodiazepine and hypnotic medication used to treat insomnia working by affecting GABA within the brain. Such use should generally be for less than ten days. Effects generally begin within an hour and last for up to eight hours.

Common side effects include sleepiness, anxiety, confusion, and dizziness. Serious side effects may include hallucinations, abuse, anaphylaxis, and suicide. Use is generally not recommended together with opioids. If the dose is rapidly decreased withdrawal may occur. Use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is not recommended.

Terazosin is an oral medication used to treat symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia and hypertension. For high blood pressure, it is a less preferred option.

Common side effects include dizziness, headache, tiredness, swelling, nausea, and postural hypotension. Severe side effects may include priapism and hypotension. Prostate cancer should be ruled out before starting treatment. It is an alpha-1 blocker and works by relaxing blood vessels and the opening of the bladder.

The terpenoids, sometimes called isoprenoids, are a large and diverse class of naturally occurring organic chemicals similar to terpenes, derived from five-carbon isoprene units assembled and modified in thousands of ways. Most are multicyclic structures that differ from one another not only in functional groups but also in their basic carbon skeletons. These lipids can be found in all classes of living things, and are the largest group of natural products. About 60% of known natural products are terpenoids.

Plant terpenoids are used extensively for their aromatic qualities and play a role in traditional herbal remedies. Terpenoids contribute to the scent of eucalyptus, the flavors of cinnamon, cloves, and ginger, the yellow color in sunflowers, and the red color in tomatoes. Well-known terpenoids include citral, menthol, camphor, salvinorin A in the plant Salvia divinorum, the cannabinoids found in cannabis, ginkgolide and bilobalide found in Ginkgo biloba, and the curcuminoids found in turmeric and mustard seed.

1. An enzyme (proteinase), formed in shed blood, which converts fibrinogen into fibrin by hydrolyzing peptides (and amides and esters) of L-arginine; formed from prothrombin by the action of prothrombinase.
2. A sterile protein substance prepared from prothrombin of bovine origin through interaction with thromboplastin in the presence of calcium; causes clotting; used as a topical hemostatic for capillary bleeding in general and plastic surgical procedures.

The smallest of the formed elements in blood, a disk-shaped, non-nucleated blood element with a fragile membrane, formed in the red bone marrow by fragmentation of megakaryocytes. Platelets tend to adhere to uneven or damaged surfaces, and there are an average of about 250,000 per mm3 of blood. The bone marrow produces from 30,000 to 50,000 platelets per mm3 of blood daily, which means that in any ten-day period all the platelets in the body are completely replaced.

Decrease in number of platelets in circulating blood; it can result from decreased or defective platelet production or from accelerated platelet destruction. Conditions related to defective production include hypoplastic or aplastic anemia, infiltration of bone marrow by malignant cells or myelofibrosis, viral infections, nutritional deficiency, and thrombocytopenic purpura. Increased destruction of platelets can be caused by infections, certain drugs, transfusion-related purpuras, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, and disseminated intravascular coagulation

A thrombus, colloquially called a blood clot, is the final product of the blood coagulation step in hemostasis. There are two components to a thrombus: aggregated platelets and red blood cells that form a plug, and a mesh of cross-linked fibrin protein. The substance making up a thrombus is sometimes called cruor. A thrombus is a healthy response to injury intended to prevent bleeding, but can be harmful in thrombosis, when clots obstruct blood flow through healthy blood vessels.

A noise in the ears, such as ringing, buzzing, or roaring, which may at times be heard by others than the patient. Common causes include presbycusis, prolonged exposure to loud environmental noise, and such pathological conditions as inflammation and infection of the ear, otosclerosis, meniere’s disease, and labyrinthitis. Systemic disorders associated with tinnitus include hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases, neurologic disorders including head injury, hyperthyroidism, and hypothyroidism. Tinnitus often is one of the first symptoms produced by an ototoxic drug.

Topiramate is an oral carbonic anhydrase inhibitor medication used to treat epilepsy and prevent migraines. It has also been used in alcohol dependence. For epilepsy, this includes treatment for generalized or focal seizures.

Common side effects include tingling, loss of appetite, feeling tired, abdominal pain, hair loss, and trouble concentrating. Serious side effects may include suicide, increased ammonia levels resulting in encephalopathy, and kidney stones. Not recommended to be used during pregnancy or breastfeeding. 

A condition in which a person has tics and other involuntary behavior, such as barking, sniffing, swearing, grunting, and making uncontrollable movements.

1. A toxoid is a bacterial toxin (usually an exotoxin) whose toxicity has been inactivated or suppressed either by chemical (formalin) or heat treatment, while other properties, typically immunogenicity, are maintained. Thus, when used during vaccination, an immune response is mounted and immunological memory is formed against the molecular markers of the toxoid without resulting in toxin-induced illness. In international medical literature the preparation also is known as anatoxin or anatoxine. There are toxoids for prevention of diphtheria, tetanus and botulism.
2. A substance that has been treated to destroy its toxic properties but retains the capacity to stimulate production of antitoxins, used in immunization.

A transmembrane protein (TP) is a type of integral membrane protein that spans the entirety of the cell membrane. Many transmembrane proteins function as gateways to permit the transport of specific substances across the membrane. They frequently undergo significant conformational changes to move a substance through the membrane.

Trazodone is an oral antidepressant medication. It is used to treat major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and, with other medications, alcohol dependence.

Common side-effects include dry mouth, feeling faint, vomiting, and headache. More serious side effects may include suicide, mania, irregular heart rate, and pathologically prolonged erections. It is unclear if use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is safe. It is a phenylpiperazine compound of the serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitor (SARI) class. Trazodone also has sedating effects.

Shakiness or trembling.

Trypanosoma is a genus of kinetoplastids (class Kinetoplastida), a monophyletic group of unicellular parasitic flagellate protozoa. The name is derived from the Greek trypano- (borer) and soma (body) because of their corkscrew-like motion. Most trypanosomes are heteroxenous (requiring more than one obligatory host to complete life cycle) and most are transmitted via a vector. Some, such as Trypanosoma equiperdum, are spread by direct contact. The majority of species are transmitted by blood-feeding invertebrates, but there are different mechanisms among the varying species. In an invertebrate host they are generally found in the intestine, but normally occupy the bloodstream or an intracellular environment in the mammalian host. Trypanosomes infect a variety of hosts and cause various diseases, including the fatal human diseases sleeping sickness, caused by Trypanosoma brucei, and Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi.

Trypanosomiasis or trypanosomosis is the name of several diseases in vertebrates caused by parasitic protozoan trypanosomes of the genus Trypanosoma. In humans this includes African trypanosomiasis and Chagas disease. A number of other diseases occur in other animals. Approximately 30,000 people in 36 countries of sub-Saharan Africa have African trypanosomiasis, which is caused by either Trypanosoma brucei gambiense or Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. Chagas disease causes 21,000 deaths per year mainly in Latin America.

1. An infectious disease of humans and animals caused by the tubercle bacillus and characterized by the formation of tubercles on the lungs and other tissues of the body, often developing long after the initial infection.
2. Tuberculosis of the lungs, characterized by the coughing up of mucus and sputum, fever, weight loss, and chest pain.
3. Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections do not have symptoms, in which case it is known as latent tuberculosis. About 10% of latent infections progress to active disease which, if left untreated, kills about half of those infected. The classic symptoms of active TB are:
   • a chronic cough with blood-containing sputum,
   • fever,
   • night sweats, and
   • weight loss.

The historical term “consumption” came about due to the weight loss. Infection of other organs can cause a wide range of symptoms.

An abnormal growth of tissue resulting from uncontrolled growth of cells and serving no function within the body; a cancerous growth. Tumors can be benign (unlikely to spread to other body parts) or malignant (likely to spread)

Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing. Ultrasound is no different from ‘normal’ (audible) sound in its physical properties, except in that humans cannot hear it. This limit varies from person to person and is approximately 20 kilohertz (20,000 hertz) in healthy, young adults. Ultrasound devices operate with frequencies from 20 kHz up to several gigahertz.

• The toxic irritant principle of poison ivy and related plants.
• Urushiol is an oily mixture of organic compounds with allergenic properties found in plants of the family Anacardiaceae, especially Toxicodendron spp. (e.g., poison oak, Chinese lacquer tree, poison ivy, poison sumac) and also in parts of the mango tree.
• A toxic substance composed of catechol derivatives that is present in the sap of various plants of the family Anacardiaceae and especially the genus Toxicodendron, including poison ivy, poison sumac, and the lacquer tree, from which a durable lacquer is obtained.

Urushiol-induced contact dermatitis (also called Toxicodendron dermatitis or Rhus dermatitis) is a type of allergic contact dermatitis caused by the oil urushiol found in various plants, most notably species of the genus Toxicodendron: poison ivy, poison oak, poison sumac, and the Chinese lacquer tree.

1. A suspension of attenuated or killed microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, or rickettsiae), administered for prevention, amelioration, or treatment of infectious diseases.
2. A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body’s immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and recognize and destroy any of these microorganisms that it later encounters. Vaccines can be prophylactic (example: to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by a natural or “wild” pathogen), or therapeutic (e.g., vaccines against cancer are being investigated).

Patchy deterioration of intellectual function resulting from damage by a significant cerebrovascular disorder.

A sensation of rotation or movement of one’s self (subjective vertigo) or of one’s surroundings (objective vertigo) in any plane. The term is sometimes used erroneously as a synonym for dizziness. Vertigo may result from diseases of the inner ear or may be due to disturbances of the vestibular centers or pathways in the central nervous system.

This may be associated with nausea, vomiting, sweating, or difficulties walking. It is typically worsened when the head is moved. Vertigo is the most common type of dizziness.

Vilanterol is a long-acting beta-2 adrenergic agonist, with bronchodilator activity. Upon administration, vilanterol stimulates beta-2 adrenergic receptors in the lungs, thereby activating the enzyme adenylate cyclase that catalyzes the conversion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to cyclic-3′,5′-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Increased cAMP concentrations relax bronchial smooth muscle, relieve bronchospasms, and reduce inflammatory cell mediator release, especially from mast cells

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL), also known as kala-azar, black fever, and Dumdum fever, is the most severe form of leishmaniasis and, without proper diagnosis and treatment, is associated with high fatality. Leishmaniasis is a disease caused by protozoan parasites of the Leishmania genus. This disease is the second-largest parasitic killer in the world (after malaria), responsible for an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 infections each year worldwide. The parasite migrates to the internal organs such as the liver, spleen (hence “visceral”), and bone marrow, and, if left untreated, will almost always result in the death of the host.

Signs and symptoms include fever, weight loss, fatigue, anemia, and substantial swelling of the liver and spleen. Of particular concern, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), is the emerging problem of HIV/VL co-infection.

White blood cells are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system.

Wuchereria bancrofti is a human parasitic roundworm that is the major cause of lymphatic filariasis. It is one of the three parasitic worms, together with Brugia malayi and B. timori, that infect the lymphatic system to cause lymphatic filariasis. These filarial worms are spread by a variety of mosquito vector species. W. bancrofti is the most prevalent of the three and affects over 120 million people, primarily in Central Africa and the Nile delta, South and Central America, the tropical regions of Asia including southern China, and the Pacific islands. If left untreated, the infection can develop into a chronic disease called elephantiasis. In rare conditions it also causes tropical eosinophilia, an asthmatic disease. Limited treatment modalities exist and no vaccines have been developed.

Excessive dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea, which lose their luster and become keratinized; may result from local disease or due to a systemic deficiency of vitamin A.

Xerostomia, also known as dry mouth, is dryness in the mouth, which may be associated with a change in the composition of saliva, or reduced salivary flow, or have no identifiable cause. This symptom is very common and is often seen as a side effect of many types of medication. It is more common in older people (mostly because this group tend to take several medications) and in persons who breathe through their mouths. Dehydration, radiotherapy involving the salivary glands, chemotherapy and several diseases can cause reduced salivation (hyposalivation), or a change in saliva consistency and hence a complaint of xerostomia. Sometimes there is no identifiable cause, and there may sometimes be a psychogenic reason for the complaint.

1. Yellow fever is a viral disease of typically short duration. In most cases, symptoms include fever, chills, loss of appetite, nausea, muscle pains particularly in the back, and headaches. Symptoms typically improve within five days. In about 15% of people within a day of improving, the fever comes back, abdominal pain occurs, and liver damage begins causing yellow skin. If this occurs, the risk of bleeding and kidney problems is also increased.
2. Yellow fever, which is also known as sylvatic fever and viral hemorrhagic fever or VHF, is a severe infectious disease caused by a type of virus called a flavivirus. This flavivirus can cause outbreaks of epidemic proportions throughout Africa and tropical America.

A bacterial species that causes plague in humans, rodents, cats, and many other mammals; it is transmitted from rat to rat and from rat to human host by as many as 30 species of flea, including the rat flea Xenopsylla; the bacterium can also be transmitted by aerosol droplets dispersed by humans or animals (especially cats) manifesting a pneumonic form of plague, or by deliberate dissemination by means of an aerosol mechanism as a form of bioterrorism; the bacterium is the type species of the genus Yersinia.

An alkaloid, the active principle of yohimbé, the bark of Corynanthe yohimbi (family Rubiaceae); it produces a competitive blockade, of limited duration, of adrenergic α-receptors; has also been used for its alleged aphrodisiac properties.

Yohimbine (/joʊˈhɪmbiːn/) is an indole alkaloid derived from the bark of the Pausinystalia yohimbe tree in Central Africa. It is a veterinary drug used to reverse sedation in dogs and deer. Yohimbine has been studied as a potential treatment for erectile dysfunction but there is insufficient evidence to rate its effectiveness. Extracts from yohimbe have been marketed as dietary supplements for improving sexual function.

Zika fever, also known as Zika virus disease or simply Zika, is an infectious disease caused by the Zika virus. Most cases have no symptoms, but when present they are usually mild and can resemble dengue fever. Symptoms may include fever, red eyes, joint pain, headache, and a maculopapular rash. Symptoms generally last less than seven days. It has not caused any reported deaths during the initial infection. Mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy can cause microcephaly and other brain malformations in some babies. Infections in adults have been linked to Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS).

1. A flavivirus that is transmitted primarily by aedes mosquitoes and that causes a mild disease with symptoms that include fever, rash, joint pain, and conjunctivitis. Infection by the Zika virus in a pregnant woman can cause microcephaly or other brain defects in her infant. The virus can also be transmitted via sexual contact and from mother to child. Also called Zika virus.
2. The infection caused by this virus. Also called Zika virus disease, Zika virus infection.

Zoonosis refers to diseases that can be passed from animals, whether wild or domesticated, to humans.